SOLUTION

A solution is a homogeneous mixture composed of two or more substances, where one

substance (the solute) is uniformly distributed in another substance (the solvent). In a
solution, the solute particles are evenly dispersed at the molecular or ionic level throughout
the solvent.

TRY TO SPEAK OUT

What is solute & what is solvent?
 There are several types of solutions based on the states of the solute and
solvent:

1. Gaseous Solutions: ……………………………………….

Examples include air, which is a solution of gases like nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and
others in the gaseous state. Another example is hydrogen gas (H2) dissolved in palladium,
forming a gaseous solution.

2. Liquid Solutions: …………………………………………..

Common liquid solutions include sugar (solute) dissolved in water (solvent) to form a sugar
solution. Alcoholic beverages, where ethanol (alcohol) is dissolved in water, are also examples
of liquid solutions.
3. Solid Solutions:………………………..

Solid solutions involve the uniform distribution of solute particles in a solid solvent. An alloy,
such as brass (a mixture of copper and zinc), is a solid solution. Steel, which is a mixture of
iron and carbon, is another example of a solid solution.

4. Aqueous Solutions:………………………

Aqueous solutions involve water as the solvent. Many chemical reactions and biological
processes occur in aqueous environments. Well known examples include salt (NaCl) dissolved
in water and hydrochloric acid (HCl) dissolved in water.
5. Supersaturated Solutions:
These solutions contain more solute than would normally dissolve at a particular temperature.
They are often created by dissolving a solute at an elevated temperature and then cooling the
solution.

6. Unsaturated Solutions:
These solutions have not reached their maximum solute concentration at a given temperature,
meaning more solute could dissolve.

7. Saturated Solutions:
Saturated solutions have reached the maximum amount of solute that can dissolve at a
particular temperature.
Rest of them

Polar Solvents with Polar Solute: Examples include water with sugar.

Nonpolar Solvents with Nonpolar Solute: Examples include hexane with oil.

Polar Solvents with Nonpolar Solute: Examples include acetone with oil.
[Link] of Solute and Solvent:
The chemical nature of both the solute and solvent plays a crucial role. Like dissolves
like, meaning polar solvents tend to dissolve polar solutes, and nonpolar solvents tend to
dissolve nonpolar solutes.
[Link]:
In general, solubility increases with an increase in temperature for most solid solutes in
liquid solvents. However, this is not universally true for all substances. For gases in
liquids, solubility often decreases with an increase in temperature
[Link] (for Gases):
For gases dissolved in liquids, solubility is influenced by pressure. Henry's Law states
that the solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the partial pressure
of that gas above the liquid.
[Link] Area:
Increasing the surface area of a solid solute can enhance its solubility. This is particularly
relevant for finely powdered or crushed solutes, as it provides more contact points for
interaction with the solvent.

[Link] or Agitation:
Stirring or agitating a solution helps in speeding up the dissolution process by increasing the
contact between the solute and solvent. This is especially important for solid solutes.

[Link] Interactions:
Chemical interactions between the solute and solvent molecules can affect solubility. For
example, the formation of hydrogen bonds or other attractive forces can enhance solubility.
[Link] Ion Effect:
The presence of common ions can influence the solubility of a substance. If a solution
already contains an ion that is part of the solute, it can reduce the solubility of that solute.

[Link] of the Solution:

For substances that can undergo ionization or dissociation, the pH of the solution can
affect solubility. Some substances are more soluble under acidic or basic conditions.

[Link] Formation:
Some solutes can form complexes with solvent molecules or other solutes, affecting their
overall solubility.
 Way of dissolution

The process of dissolution involves the breakdown of solute particles and their integration
into the solvent to form a homogeneous mixture, often referred to as a solution.

The mechanism of dissolution depends on the nature of the solute and solvent and is
influenced by factors like temperature, pressure, and molecular interactions.
While cellulose is insoluble in water and most common solvents, there are certain treatments
that can modify its structure to make it more soluble. One such treatment involves using a
solution of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and urea.
Henry's Law provides a mathematical relationship describing the solubility of a gas in a
liquid at a constant temperature. The equation is as follows:

C=k⋅Px

where:
C is the concentration of the dissolved gas in the liquid (usually in mol/L or another
concentration unit),
k is Henry's Law constant, which is specific for a particular gas-solvent pair at a given
temperature,
Px is the partial pressure of the gas above the liquid.
Some common examples of solutions involving gases in liquids:
[Link] Beverages: Carbon dioxide (CO2) dissolves in water to form carbonic acid,
leading to the fizzy or effervescent nature of carbonated beverages. The higher pressure in a
sealed container, such as a soda bottle, increases the solubility of CO 2 in the liquid.
[Link] of Water: Oxygen (O2) from the air can dissolve in water, especially in bodies of
water such as rivers, lakes, and oceans. This dissolved oxygen is crucial for aquatic life and
supports various biochemical processes.
[Link] Dissolved in Blood Plasma: Oxygen is transported in the blood by dissolving in
the liquid component known as plasma. The solubility of oxygen in blood is influenced by
factors such as partial pressure and temperature.
[Link] Dissolved in Body Fluids: Nitrogen, a major component of air, can dissolve in
body fluids. Scuba divers are familiar with the concept of nitrogen dissolving in the
bloodstream at higher pressures, which can lead to decompression sickness if not managed
properly during ascent.
[Link] Dissolved in Water: Ammonia (NH3) can dissolve in water, forming ammonium
hydroxide. This is important in various industrial processes and environmental chemistry.
[Link] Dissolved in Water: Chlorine gas (Cl2) can dissolve in water to form a solution
of hydrochloric acid (HCl) and hypochlorous acid (HOCl). This is utilized in water treatment
for disinfection.
[Link] Dioxide Dissolved in Water: Sulfur dioxide (SO2) dissolves in water to form
sulfurous acid (H2SO3). This process is relevant in environmental chemistry and the
formation of acid rain.
Different units of concentration
[Link]/Mass Percentage (% w/w): This is the mass of the solute divided by the total mass
of the solution, multiplied by 100.

Mass % (w/w) = (Mass of Solute /Total Mass of Solution)×100

[Link]/Volume Percentage (% v/v): This is the volume of the solute divided by the total
volume of the solution, multiplied by 100.

Volume % (v/v) = (Volume of Solute /Total Volume of Solution)×100

[Link]/Volume Percentage (% w/v): This is the mass of the solute divided by the volume
of the solution, multiplied by 100.

Mass % (w/v) = (Mass of Solute/Volume of Solution)×100

[Link] (M): This is the number of moles of solute per liter of solution.
Molarity(M) = Moles of Solute/Liters of Solution
[Link] (m): This is the number of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent.
Molality(m) = Moles of Solute/Mass of Solvent (in kg)
[Link] (N): This is the number of equivalents of solute per liter of solution.
Normality(N) = Equivalents of Solute/Liters of Solution​
[Link] Per Million (ppm): This is the number of parts of solute per million parts of
solution.
ppm = mg of solute/litters of solution
Or, ppm = µg of solute/mLs of solution
I. 5gNaCl dissolved in 145mL of water. What is the molarity, normality and ppm of
the solution?

II. If 105g of ferric chloride dissolved in 587mL of solvent, what will be the molarity
of the solution?

III. 98g of H2SO4 was dissolved in 1L water, what will be the molarity, normality of this
solution?

IV. Convert 0.001M NaOH to ppm….

V. In a river water sample there are 5ppm O2 was found. What is the molarity of the
oxygen in this sample?
Distribution Law
The Distribution Law, often referred to as the Law of Distribution or the Partition Law,
describes the distribution of a solute between two immiscible solvents at equilibrium.

This law is commonly applied in the field of chemistry, particularly in the study of liquid-
liquid extraction or separation techniques.

The law is based on the assumption that the distribution of a solute between two solvents is
proportional to their respective concentrations in each solvent.
The distribution law can be stated as follows:

C2​/C1​=Kd​

where:
•C1​is the concentration of the solute in the first solvent (organic phase, for example),
•C2​is the concentration of the solute in the second solvent (aqueous phase, for example),
•Kd​is the distribution coefficient or partition coefficient.

The distribution coefficient (Kd​) is a constant at a given temperature and for a specific solute
and pair of immiscible solvents. It indicates how the solute is distributed between the two
phases when the system reaches equilibrium.
 Applications of Distribution Law
(1) Solvent Extraction
This is the process used for the separation of organic substances from aqueous solutions. The aqueous solution is shaken with
an immiscible organic solvent such as ether (or benzene) in a separatory funnel. The distribution ratio being in favour of
ether, most of the organic substance passes into the ethereal layer. The ethereal layer is separated and ether distilled off.
Organic substance is left behind
2) Partition Chromatography:
This is a modern technique of separating a mixture of small amounts of organic materials. A paste of the mixture is applied at
the top of a column of silica soaked in water. Another immiscible solvent, say hexane, is allowed to flow down the column.
Thus the component with the highest distribution coefficient is first to move down in the flowing hexane which is collected
separately. Similarly, a component with a lower distribution ratio comes down later and is received in another vessel.
Properties of Dilute Solution
Lower Osmotic Pressure: The osmotic pressure of a dilute solution is lower compared to a
concentrated solution. Osmotic pressure is directly proportional to the concentration of solute
particles in the solution, according to van't Hoff's law.

Lower Boiling Point Elevation: Dilute solutions exhibit a smaller increase in boiling point
compared to pure solvent due to the presence of solute particles. This phenomenon is governed
by Raoult's law and is less pronounced in dilute solutions.

Lower Freezing Point Depression: Similarly, dilute solutions experience a smaller decrease in
freezing point compared to pure solvent due to the presence of solute particles. This is also
governed by Raoult's law and is less significant in dilute solutions.
Ideal Behavior: In dilute solutions, the interactions between solute particles are minimal, and
the solution may behave more ideally, adhering closely to ideal solution behavior
assumptions. This simplifies calculations and predictions in dilute solution systems.

Colligative Properties: Dilute solutions exhibit colligative properties, which depend only on
the number of solute particles and not on their nature. These properties include vapor pressure
lowering, boiling point elevation, freezing point depression, and osmotic pressure.

Increased Reactivity: Dilute solutions can sometimes enhance the reactivity of solute
particles due to increased accessibility of solvent molecules to the solute particles. This
property is particularly relevant in chemical reactions occurring in dilute solution
environments.
Raoult's Law
The vapor pressure of a solution is directly proportional to the mole fraction of each
component in the solution. Raoult's Law is typically applied to solutions where the
intermolecular forces between different components are similar, and the solution behaves
ideally.

The general form of Raoult's Law for a two-component system is

given by:
Ptotal ​= xA​⋅PA ​+ xB​⋅PB​

Where:
Ptotal​is the total vapor pressure of the solution.
xA​and xB​are the mole fractions of components A and B, respectively.
PA​and PB​are the vapor pressures of pure A and B, respectively.
Key Applications of Raoult's Law
Ideal Solutions: Raoult's Law is most applicable to ideal solutions, where the interactions
between unlike molecules are similar to those between like molecules. In such cases, the
vapor pressure of the solution follows the ideal behavior predicted by Raoult's Law.

Vapor Pressure Lowering: Raoult's Law explains how the presence of a non-volatile solute
in a solvent lowers the vapor pressure of the solution compared to the pure solvent. This
phenomenon is crucial in understanding colligative properties such as boiling point elevation
and freezing point depression.

Distillation: Raoult's Law is fundamental in distillation processes. It helps predict the

composition of the vapor phase at different temperatures during distillation and is used to
separate components based on their different vapor pressures.
Azeotropes: Raoult's Law is used to explain the behavior of azeotropic mixtures, where the
vapor composition is the same as the liquid composition. Deviations from Raoult's Law can
result in the formation of positive or negative azeotropes.

Industrial Processes: Raoult's Law is applied in various industrial processes involving

liquid-vapor equilibria, such as the production of chemicals, pharmaceuticals, and
petrochemicals. Understanding vapor pressures is crucial for designing and optimizing these
processes.
Elevation of boiling point
This phenomenon occurs when a non-volatile solute is added to a solvent, resulting in an
increase in the boiling point of the solution compared to the pure solvent. The degree of
boiling point elevation is proportional to the molality (moles of solute per kilogram of
solvent) of the solution and can be quantitatively described by the equation:
ΔTb ​= i⋅Kb​⋅m
Where:
ΔTb​is the elevation of boiling point,
i is the van't Hoff factor, representing the number of particles into which the solute
dissociates or associates in the solution,
Kb​is the ebullioscopic constant, a characteristic property of the solvent,
m is the molality of the solution.
The addition of solute disrupts the normal boiling process by impeding solvent vaporization,
requiring a higher temperature for the solution to boil. Boiling point elevation has practical
implications, such as in high temperature boiling liquids, and its understanding is crucial
in various scientific and industrial applications where precise control of solution
properties is essential.
Depression of freezing point
The depression of freezing point is a colligative property observed in solutions, wherein the
freezing point of a solvent is lowered upon the addition of a non-volatile solute. This
phenomenon is a consequence of the reduction in vapor pressure at the solution's surface,
making it more difficult for the solvent to undergo the phase transition from liquid to solid.

The depression of freezing point can be quantitatively expressed by the equation:

ΔTf = i·Kf·m

where ΔTf is the depression of freezing point, i is the van't Hoff factor representing solute
dissociation or association, Kf is the cryoscopic constant specific to the solvent, and m is the
molality of the solution.
The depression of freezing point is exploited in antifreeze formulations for vehicles,
preventing engine coolant from solidifying at low temperatures.

Overall, this colligative property provides valuable insights into the thermodynamic behavior
of solutions and finds diverse applications across various disciplines.
Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure
Osmosis is a process by which the molecules of a solvent pass from a solution of low
concentration to a solution of high concentration through a semi-permeable membrane.

 Osmosis is a passive process and happens without any expenditure of energy.

 It involves the movement of molecules from a region of higher concentration to lower concentration until
the concentrations become equal on either side of the membrane.
 Any solvent can undergo the process of osmosis including gases and supercritical liquids.
Osmotic Solutions:
There are three different types of osmotic solutions:

 Isotonic Solution

 Hypertonic Solution

 Hypotonic Solution

An isotonic solution is one that has the same concentration of solutes both inside and outside the cell.

A hypertonic solution is one that has a higher solute concentration outside the cell than inside.

A hypotonic solution is one that has a higher solute concentration inside the cell than outside.
Types of Osmosis:

Osmosis is of two types:

Endosmosis: When a substance is placed in a hypotonic solution, the solvent molecules move inside the cell
and the cell becomes turgid or undergoes deplasmolysis. This is known as endosmosis.

Exosmosis: When a substance is placed in a hypertonic solution, the solvent molecules move outside the cell
and the cell becomes flaccid or undergoes plasmolysis. This is known as exosmosis.

The significance of osmosis:

The biological importance of osmosis includes:
[Link] is essential for the survival of a cell.
[Link] plays a key role during the germination of seeds.
[Link] in the movement of water molecules between the cell and cell organelles.
[Link] plants, it is involved in the movement of water molecules from the soil into the root nodules.
[Link] mechanism of stomata is mainly because of the response to the osmotic pressure of the guard cells in
relation to the epidermal cells.
Osmotic pressure is the minimum pressure that prevents solvent molecules (water) from flowing through a
semipermeable membrane.

In other words, it is the pressure of a solvent against a semipermeable membrane that seeks to equalize the
concentration of a solution on both sides of the membrane.

Osmotic pressure is a colligative property of matter, so it depends on the number of solute particles and not their
chemical identity.
In the context of osmotic pressure, Raoult's Law can be related to the ideal behavior of
solvents in a solution and their vapor pressures. Osmotic pressure ( π) is then given by Van't
Hoff's equation:

π = iMRT

Here, i is the Van't Hoff factor, M is the molarity of the solution, R is the ideal gas constant,
and T is the temperature.

Osmotic pressure ultimately depends on the concentration of solute particles and the
properties of the solvent.
 Henry’s Law
This law states that the amount of gas dissolved in a liquid is directly proportional to the
partial pressure of the liquid when the temperature is kept constant.. The mathematical
expression of the Henry’s law is:

P ∝ C (or) P = kH.C
[The constant of proportionality for this relationship is called Henry’s law constant (usually
denoted by ‘kH‘)].
Where:
 C is the concentration of the gas in the solution which is usually expressed in molarity (moles per liter), so the
common unit is molar (M)
 P is the partial pressure of the gas in the gas phase above the solution expressed in atmospheres (atm)
 kH is Henry's constant, which depends on the nature of the gas, the solvent and the temperature. Henry's
constant will have units of M/atm.
Factors Affecting the Henry’s Law Constant

The value of the Henry’s law constant of a gas is dependent on the following
factors:
 The nature of the gas
 The nature of the solvent
 Temperature & pressure
Therefore, different gases have different Henry’s laws constant in different
solvents, as illustrated graphically below.
Examples of Henry's constants for some common substances in water at 25°C:

Chemical Henry's constant (k) in water at

Substance
formula 25°C (M/atm)
Oxygen O₂ 1.3×10 −3
Carbon dioxide CO₂ 3.3 x 10 -2
Nitrogen N₂ 6.1×10 −4
Hydrogen H₂ 7.6 x 10 -4
Ammonia NH₃ 5.6×10 −2
Methane CH₄ 1.2×10 −3
Sulfur dioxide SO₂ 5.6×10 −2
Limitations of Henry’s Law:

 This law is only applicable when the molecules of the system are in a state of equilibrium.

 Henry’s law does not hold true when gases are placed under extremely high pressure.

 The law is not applicable when the gas and the solution participate in chemical reactions
with each other.
Example 1:
Calculate the solubility of gaseous oxygen in water at a temperature of 293 K when the
partial pressure exerted by O2 is 1 bar. (Given: kH for O2 34840 [Link]-1)

We know from Henry’s law, P = kH  C -------------------------------- (i)

Here, kH = 34840 [Link]-1 and P = 1 bar. Therefore, from equation (i)

C = 1/34840 mol.L-1 = 2.8710-5 mol/L
Therefore, the solubility of oxygen in water under the given conditions is 2.8710-5 M.
Example 2:
The value of kH for carbon dioxide at a temperature of 293 K is 1.6*103 [Link]-1. At
what partial pressure would the gas have a solubility (in water) of 2*10-5 M?

We know from Henry’s law, P = kH  C -------------------------------- (i)

Here, kH = 1.6103 [Link]-1
and C = 210-5 M

Therefore, from Henry’s law we get:

P = 1.6103 [Link]-1)  (210-5 mol.L-1) = 0.032 atm.