Module:1 Fundamentals of Signals

 Representation of continuous and discrete-time signals

 Classification of signals

 Transformation of independent variables

 Operations on signals

 Nyquist sampling theorem

Signal is a physical quantity that conveys information about some phenomenon. Examples,

 Electromagnetic waves – carries information about voice

 Electrical signal

 Mechanical signals

Signals typically exhibits variation in either space or time. Examples,

 Signals in time
Electromagnetic wave – Speech, voice
 Signals in space
Image - two dimensional signal
 Signals in both space + time varying
Video – Sequence of frames in time
Basic Signals
There are several basic CTS & DTS that occur frequently and serve as the basic building blocks for
constructing many other signals.
1. Sinusoidal & Exponential Signals.
2. Unit Impulse & Unit Step Signals

Exponential and sinusoidal signals are characteristic of real-world signals and also from a basis (a
building block) for other signals.
 Signals in time
Time varying signals (Signals which are the function of time) are represented as

Sinusoidal Siganls
 Continuous Time signal

𝒙 ( 𝒕 )=𝐬𝐢𝐧 ( 𝝎 𝒕 )
Defined for all time events in an interval [t1,t2]

 Discrete Time signal

Defined at a discrete set of time instant events in an interval

Identified as a series or sequence of number

Discrete Time signal – Time series

Discrete Time signal can be obtained by sampling the continuous time signal

Samples

Discrete signal
Original Continuous signal
Sampling time

Discrete time signals are more convenient than continuous and can be processed readily to
process as a digital signal
 𝟐𝝅
𝝎=𝟐 𝝅 𝒇 𝝎 = 𝒕
 Phase Shift
Time Shift 𝒙 (𝒕 ) ¿ 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎 𝟎 𝒕
𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ( 𝝎 𝟎 ( 𝒕 +𝒕 𝟎 ) )= 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ( 𝝎 𝟎 𝒕 +𝝎 𝟎 𝒕 𝟎 )
(
𝒙 (𝒕 ) ¿ 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎 𝟎 −
𝞹
2 )
∆𝜑
𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ( 𝝎 𝟎 ( 𝒕 − 𝒕 𝟎 ) ) = 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ( 𝝎 𝟎 𝒕 − 𝝎 𝟎 𝒕 𝟎 )
(
𝒙 (𝒕 ) ¿ 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎 𝟎 𝒕 −
𝑻 𝟎 𝝎𝟎
4 )
Example ∆𝜑 (
𝒙 (𝒕 ) ¿ 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎 𝟎 𝒕 −
𝑻𝟎
4 )
𝑻𝟎
𝒕 =𝒕 −
4
𝒙 (𝒕 ) ¿ 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎 𝟎 𝒕 𝑷𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆↔ 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝑺𝒉𝒊𝒇𝒕

(
𝒙 (𝒕 ) ¿ 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎 𝟎 𝒕 −
𝑻𝟎
4 )
(
𝒙 (𝒕 ) ¿ 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎 𝟎 𝒕 −
) 𝟐𝞹
𝝎𝟎 4

( 𝝎 2)
𝒙 (𝒕 ) ¿ 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎 𝒕 −𝟎
𝞹
𝟎

(
𝒙 (𝒕 ) ¿ 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎 𝟎 𝒕 −
𝞹
2 )
 𝒙 [ 𝒏 ] = 𝒙[−𝒏]
𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ( 𝜴 𝟎 ( 𝒏 +𝒏𝟎 ) ) = 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ( 𝜴 𝟎 𝒏 + 𝜴 𝟎 𝒏𝟎 )

∆ 𝜑 = 𝜴 𝟎 𝒏𝟎
∆𝜑
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝑺𝒉𝒊𝒇𝒕 → 𝑷𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒙 [ 𝒏 ] =− 𝒙 [− 𝒏]
∆𝜑
=𝒏𝟎 𝑷𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒏 𝒐𝒕 𝒏𝒆𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒍𝒚 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝑺𝒉𝒊𝒇𝒕
𝜴𝟎 ⇒
𝑥 [ 𝑛 ] =𝑥 [𝑛+ 𝑁 0 ]
Sinusoidal Signal

Continuous Time Signal Discrete Time Signal

 Continuous Time Signal Discrete Time Signal

 Distinct signal for distinct value of ω0  Identical signal at frequencies separated by 2𝝅

𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ( 𝜴 𝟏 𝒏+ 𝝋 )
𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ( 𝝎𝟏 𝒕 +𝝋 )

𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ( 𝝎𝟐 𝒕 +𝝋 ) 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ( 𝜴 𝟐 𝒏+ 𝝋 )

𝝎 𝟐 =𝝎 𝟏 +𝟐 𝝅 𝜴 𝟐 =𝜴 𝟏 +𝟐 𝝅
𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ( 𝝎𝟐 𝒕 +𝝋 )= 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ( 𝝎 𝟏 𝒕 + 𝟐 𝝅 𝒕 +𝝋 ) 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ( 𝜴 𝟐 𝒏+ 𝝋 ) = 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ( 𝜴 𝟏 𝒏+𝟐 𝝅 𝒏+𝝋 )
𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ( 𝝎𝟐 𝒕 +𝝋 ) ≠ 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ( 𝝎𝟏 𝒕 +𝝋 ) ¿ 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ( 𝜴 𝟏 𝒏+ 𝝋 )
 Discrete Time Signal
Continuous Time Signal
 Phase change
 Phase change 𝒙 [ 𝒏 ] = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ( 𝝅
𝟐
𝒏 )
𝑷𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆↔ 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝑺𝒉𝒊𝒇𝒕

𝝅 2
𝟐

𝒙 [ 𝒏 ] = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ( 𝝅
𝟐
𝒏+
𝝅
𝟑 )
𝑷𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒏 𝒐𝒕 𝒏𝒆𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒍𝒚 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝑺𝒉𝒊𝒇𝒕
⇒

𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝑺𝒉𝒊𝒇𝒕 → 𝑷𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆

 Continuous Time Signal Discrete Time Signal

Exponential
Signal
Discrete Time Real Exponential Signal

𝒏
( )
𝒙 𝒕 =𝑪 ∝
𝑪 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝞪 𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒍
Unit Step Signal
Continuous Time Signal Discrete Time Signal

u(t) u[n]

1 1

…..-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 2 3 4 5 …..
t …..-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 …..n

{
𝒖 ( 𝒕 )= 𝟏 ; 𝒕 ≥ 𝟎
𝟎 ; 𝒕 <𝟎
{
𝒖 [ 𝒏]= 𝟏 ; 𝒏 ≥ 𝟎
𝟎 ;𝒏 <𝟎
Unit Ramp Signal
Continuous Time Signal Discrete Time Signal

r(t) r[n]

t
…..-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 2 3 4 5 ….. 1
n
…..-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 …..

{
𝒓 (𝒕)= 𝒕 ; 𝒕≥ 𝟎
𝟎 ; 𝒕 <𝟎
{
𝒓 [𝒏 ]= 𝒏 ; 𝒏 ≥ 𝟎
𝟎 ; 𝒏 <𝟎
Unit Impulse Signal
Continuous Time Signal Discrete Time Signal

δ(t) δ[n]

1 1

t n
…..-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 2 3 4 5 ….. …..-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 …..

{
δ ( 𝒕 ) = 𝟏 ; 𝒕 =𝟎
𝟎;𝒕≠ 𝟎
{
δ [ 𝒏 ]= 𝟏 ; 𝒏=𝟎
𝟎; 𝒏 ≠ 𝟎
Classification of Signals
 Periodic and Aperiodic
 Even and odd
 Energy and power
 Deterministic and random

1. Periodic and Aperiodic

Continuous Time Signal Discrete Time Signal

𝒙 ( 𝒕 )=𝒙 (𝒕 + 𝑻 𝟎) 𝒙 [ 𝒏]=𝒙 [ 𝒏+ 𝑵 𝟎 ]
𝟐𝝅 𝑵𝟎 𝟐 𝝅
𝑻 𝟎= =
𝝎𝟎 𝒎 𝜴𝟎
 Periodic and Aperiodic signal - Problems
− 𝒋 ( 𝝅 𝒕 −𝟏 )
1. 𝟐 . 𝒙 ( 𝒕 ) =𝒆
𝝎 𝟎=𝟑 𝝎 𝟎=𝝅
𝟐𝝅 𝟐𝝅 𝟐𝝅 𝟐𝝅
𝑭𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅= = 𝒔 𝑭𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅= = =𝟐 𝒔
𝝎𝟎 𝟑 𝝎𝟎 𝝅

𝟑 . 𝒙 [ 𝒏 ] =𝐜𝐨𝐬 ( 𝟖𝝅𝒏
𝟕
+𝟐 )
𝟖𝝅
Ω 𝟎=
𝟕

𝑵𝟎 𝟐 𝝅 𝟐 𝝅 𝟕
= = 𝟕=
𝒎 Ω𝟎 𝟖 𝝅 𝟒

𝑵 𝟎 =𝟕 𝒔
 𝒏
𝒋( − 𝝅)
𝟒 . 𝒙 [ 𝒏 ]= 𝒆 𝟖

𝟏 𝑵 𝟎 𝟐 𝝅 𝟐 𝝅 (𝟖) is irrational and the signal is aperiodic

Ω 𝟎= = =
𝟖 𝒎 Ω𝟎 𝟏

𝟓 . 𝒙 ( 𝒕 ) =¿ ¿
𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝟐 𝒕 − 𝝅 / 𝟑 )
¿ −
𝟐 𝟐
𝟐𝝅 𝟐𝝅
𝝎 𝟎=𝟐 𝑭𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅= = =𝝅 𝒔
𝝎𝟎 𝟐

𝟔 . 𝒙 [ 𝒏 ] =𝐜𝐨𝐬 ( 𝒏/𝟒 ) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ( 𝝅 𝒏/𝟒 )

The signal is aperiodic

 (
𝟕 . 𝒙 [ 𝒏 ] =𝐜𝐨𝐬
𝝅 𝒏𝟐
𝟖 ) 𝒏=𝟎
𝝅 𝑵 𝟎 𝟐 𝝅 (𝟖) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ( 𝜴 𝟎 𝑵 𝟐𝟎 ) =𝟏
Ω 𝟎= = =𝟏𝟔
𝟖 𝒎 𝝅
𝑵 𝟎 =𝟏𝟔 𝑵 𝟎 =𝟖 ∗𝟐
𝒙 [𝒏 ]= 𝒙 [ 𝒏 + 𝑵 𝟎 ]

𝐜𝐨𝐬 ( Ω 𝟎 𝒏𝟐) =𝐜𝐨𝐬 [ Ω 𝟎 ( 𝒏+ 𝑵 𝟎 )𝟐 ]

cos ( 𝜴 𝟎 𝒏𝟐) =𝐜𝐨𝐬 [ 𝜴 𝟎 𝒏𝟐+ 𝜴 𝟎 𝟐 𝒏 𝑵 𝟎+ 𝜴 𝟎 𝑵 𝟐𝟎 ]

𝐜𝐨𝐬
𝝅
𝟖(( 𝟏𝟔 𝟐 ) =𝟏)
𝑹𝒆 ( 𝒆
𝒋 𝜴𝟎 𝒏
𝟐

) = 𝑹𝒆 ¿ 𝐜𝐨𝐬( )
𝝅 𝟐
𝟖
( 𝟖 ) =𝟏

𝑹𝒆 ( 𝒆 ) = 𝑹𝒆 ¿ 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ( ( 𝟐 ) ) ≠ 𝟏
𝟐
𝒋 𝜴𝟎 𝒏 𝝅 𝟐
𝟖
𝟏 = 𝑹𝒆 ¿
The signal is periodic with a period
𝐜𝐨𝐬 ( 𝜴 𝟎 𝟐 𝒏 𝑵 𝟎 + 𝜴 𝟎 𝑵 ) =𝟏
𝟐
𝟎
𝑵 𝟎 =𝟖 𝒔
 (
𝟖 . 𝒙 [ 𝒏 ] =𝐜𝐨𝐬
𝝅 𝒏𝟑
𝟗 ) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 (
𝝅 𝟑
𝟗 )
(𝟑 ) ≠ 𝟏
𝝅 𝑵 𝟎 𝟐 𝝅 (𝟗)
Ω 𝟎= = =𝟏𝟖
𝟗 𝒎 𝝅
𝒙 [𝒏 ]= 𝒙 [ 𝒏 + 𝑵 𝟎 ]

𝒏=𝟎
𝐜𝐨𝐬 ( 𝜴 𝟎 𝑵 𝟑𝟎 ) =𝟏

𝑵 𝟎 =𝟏𝟖 𝑵 𝟎 =𝟔 ∗𝟑

𝐜𝐨𝐬
𝝅
𝟗 (
( 𝟏𝟖 𝟑 ) =𝟏 )
𝐜𝐨𝐬
𝟗 (
𝝅 𝟑
( 𝟔 ) =𝟏 ) The signal is periodic with a period
𝑵 𝟎 =𝟔 𝒔
 ( )
𝟗 . 𝒙 [ 𝒏 ] =𝐜𝐨𝐬
𝝅 𝒏𝟓
𝟏𝟎

20 𝑵 𝟎 =𝟒 ∗𝟓

The signal is periodic

with a period
𝑵 𝟎 =𝟐𝟎 𝒔
𝟏𝟎 . 𝒙 [ 𝒏 ] =𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ( 𝝅 𝒏 / 𝟒 ) + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ( 𝝅 𝒏 / 𝟖 ) − 𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ( 𝝅𝒏 𝝅
𝟐
+
𝟔 )
𝝅 𝝅 𝝅
Ω 𝟎𝟏= Ω 𝟎𝟐= Ω 𝟎𝟑=
𝟒 𝟖 𝟐

𝑵 𝟎𝟏 𝟐 𝝅 (𝟒) 𝑵 𝟎𝟐 𝟐 𝝅 (𝟖) 𝑵 𝟎𝟑 𝟐 𝝅 (𝟐)

= =𝟖 = =𝟏𝟔 = =𝟒
𝒎 𝝅 𝒎 𝝅 𝒎 𝝅

𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒊𝒈𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒊𝒔 =𝟏𝟔 𝒔

𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅𝒊𝒄 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝑵 𝟎
2. Even and Odd

Even signal Odd signal

𝒙 ( 𝒕 )=𝒙 (− 𝒕) 𝒙 ( 𝒕 )=− 𝒙 (− 𝒕 )
𝒙 [𝒏]=𝒙 [−𝒏] [-n]

Even part of the signal Odd part of the signal

𝒙 ( 𝒕 ) + 𝒙 (−𝒕 ) 𝒙 ( 𝒕 ) − 𝒙 (− 𝒕 )
𝑬𝒗 [ 𝒙 ( 𝒕 ) ] = 𝑶𝒅 [ 𝒙 ( 𝒕 ) ] =
𝟐 𝟐

𝒙 [𝒏]+ 𝒙 [− 𝒏] 𝒙 [𝒏]− 𝒙 [−𝒏]

𝑬𝒗 [ 𝒙 [𝒏] ] = 𝑶𝒅 [ 𝒙 [𝒏] ] =
𝟐 𝟐
3. Energy and Power
𝟐
𝟐 𝒗 (𝒕 )
𝒑 ( 𝒕 ) =𝒊 ( 𝒕 ) 𝒗 ( 𝒕 )=𝒊(𝒕 ) 𝑹=
𝑹
𝒕𝟏
𝟏 𝟐
𝑷 𝒂𝒗𝒈 = ∫
𝒕 𝟐 −𝒕 𝟏 𝒕
| 𝒙(𝒕)| 𝒅𝒕
𝟐

𝑻 𝑻 ∞
𝟏
∫ ∫ |𝒙 (𝒕)| 𝒅𝒕= ∫ |𝒙(𝒕)| 𝒅𝒕
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝑷= lim |𝒙(𝒕)| 𝒅𝒕 𝑬= lim
𝑻 →∞ 𝟐𝑻 − 𝑻 𝑻 →∞ −𝑻 −∞

𝑵 ∞
𝑵
∑ |𝒙 [𝒏]| = ∑ |𝒙 [𝒏]|
𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 𝑬= lim
∑
𝟐
𝑷 = lim |𝒙 [𝒏]|
𝑵 → ∞ 𝟐 𝑵 +𝟏 𝒏=− 𝑵
𝑵 → ∞ 𝒏=− 𝑵 𝒏=−∞

𝑬<∞ 𝒉𝒂𝒔 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒆𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒛𝒆𝒓𝒐 𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓

energy
Energy and Power signal - Problems
𝟏 . 𝒚 ( 𝒕 )= 𝑨 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ( 𝝎 𝟎 𝒕 +𝝋 )
− 𝒃𝒕
𝟐 . 𝒚 ( 𝒕 )=𝒆 𝒖(𝒕 )
𝒏
𝟑 . 𝒚 ( 𝒕 )=𝒕 𝒖 ( 𝒕 ) ;𝒏 >𝟎
𝒏
𝟒 . 𝒙 [ 𝒏 ] = (− 𝟎 .𝟑 ) 𝒖 (𝒏 )
𝒋 𝟐𝒏
𝟓 . 𝒙 [ 𝒏 ] =𝟑 𝒆
Energy and Power signal - Problems

| |
𝑻𝟎
𝟏 . 𝒚 ( 𝒕 )= 𝑨 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ( 𝝎 𝟎 𝒕 +𝝋 ) 𝑨 𝟐
( 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐 ( 𝝎 𝟎 𝒕 +𝝋 ) )
𝑷 𝒂𝒗𝒈 = 𝒕−
𝟐𝑻𝟎 𝟐 𝝎𝟎 𝟎
𝑻𝟎
𝟏
𝑻𝟎 ∫
| |
𝟐
𝑷 𝒂𝒗𝒈 = 𝒚 (𝒕 ) 𝒅𝒕 𝑻𝟎
𝑨𝟐
( 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐 ( 𝝎 𝟎 𝒕 +𝝋 ) )
𝟎
𝑷 𝒂𝒗𝒈 = 𝒕−
𝟐𝑻𝟎 𝟐 𝝎𝟎 𝟎
𝑻𝟎
𝑨𝟐 𝟐
∫ | |
| |
𝑷 𝒂𝒗𝒈 =
𝑻𝟎 𝟎
𝐬𝐢𝐧 ( 𝝎 𝟎 𝒕 +𝝋 ) 𝒅𝒕 𝟐
( 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐 ( 𝝎 𝟎 𝑻 𝟎 +𝝋 ) ) 𝒔𝒊𝒏 (𝟐 𝝋 )
𝑻𝟎
𝑨
𝑷 𝒂𝒗𝒈 = 𝑻 − +
𝟐𝑻𝟎 𝟎 𝟐 𝝎𝟎 𝟐 𝝎𝟎 𝟎

( )
𝑨
𝟐 𝑻𝟎
𝟏− 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐 ( 𝝎 𝟎 𝒕 +𝝋 ) 𝟐𝝅
𝑷 𝒂𝒗𝒈 = ∫ 𝒅𝒕 𝝎 𝟎=
𝑻𝟎 𝟎 𝟐 𝑻𝟎

| |
𝑻𝟎
𝑨
𝟐
( 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ( 𝟐 𝝅+ 𝟐𝝋 ) ) 𝒔𝒊𝒏 (𝟐 𝝋 )
𝑻𝟎 𝑷 𝒂𝒗𝒈 = 𝑻 𝟎− +
𝑨𝟐 𝟐𝑻𝟎 𝟐 𝝎𝟎 𝟐 𝝎𝟎
𝑷 𝒂𝒗𝒈 = ∫
𝟐𝑻𝟎 𝟎 ( 𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐 ( 𝝎 𝟎 𝒕 + 𝝋 ) ) 𝒅𝒕 𝟎

𝟐
𝑨 𝑨
𝟐
𝑷 𝒂𝒗𝒈 = 𝑻𝟎 𝑷 𝒂𝒗𝒈 = 𝑬 =∞
𝟐𝑻𝟎 𝟐
y(t) is a power signal
Energy and Power signal - Problems

| |
𝑻𝟎
𝒚 ( 𝒕 ) =𝟑 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ( 𝟓 𝝎 𝟎 𝒕 ) 𝟗 ( 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐 ( 𝟓 𝝎 𝟎 𝒕 ) )
𝑷 𝒂𝒗𝒈 = 𝒕+
𝟐𝑻𝟎 𝟏𝟎 𝝎 𝟎 𝟎
𝑻𝟎
𝟏
𝑻𝟎 ∫
| |
𝟐
𝑷 𝒂𝒗𝒈 = 𝒚 (𝒕 ) 𝒅𝒕 𝑻𝟎
𝟗 ( 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐 ( 𝟓 𝝎 𝟎 𝒕 ) )
𝟎
𝑷 𝒂𝒗𝒈 = 𝒕+
𝟐𝑻𝟎 𝟏𝟎 𝝎 𝟎 𝟎
𝑻𝟎
𝟗 𝟐
∫
𝑷 𝒂𝒗𝒈 =
𝑻𝟎 𝟎 |𝐜𝐨𝐬 ( 𝟓 𝝎 𝟎 )| 𝒅𝒕
𝒕
𝑷 𝒂𝒗𝒈 =
𝟗
𝟐𝑻𝟎 |
𝑻 𝟎+
( 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐 ( 𝟓 𝝎 𝟎 𝑻 𝟎 ) )
𝟏𝟎 𝝎 𝟎 |
( )
𝟗
𝑻𝟎
𝟏+ 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐 ( 𝟓 𝝎 𝟎 𝒕 ) 𝟐𝝅
𝑷 𝒂𝒗𝒈 = ∫ 𝒅𝒕 𝝎 𝟎=
𝑻𝟎 𝟎 𝟐 𝑻𝟎

𝑷 𝒂𝒗𝒈 =
𝟗
∫ (
𝑻𝟎

𝟏+ 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐 ( 𝟓 𝝎 𝟎 𝒕 ) ) 𝒅𝒕
𝑷 𝒂𝒗𝒈 =
𝟗
𝟐𝑻𝟎 |
𝑻 𝟎+
( 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ( 𝟏𝟎 𝝅 ) )
𝟐 𝝎𝟎 |
𝟐𝑻𝟎 𝟎
𝟗 𝟗
𝑷 𝒂𝒗𝒈 = 𝑻 𝑷 𝒂𝒗𝒈 = 𝑬 =∞
𝟐𝑻𝟎 𝟎 𝟐
y(t) is a power signal
Energy and Power signal - Problems
− 𝒃𝒕
𝟐 . 𝒚 ( 𝒕 )=𝒆 𝒖(𝒕 )
∞
𝟐
𝑬 =∫ ( 𝒆 ) 𝒖 (𝒕 ) 𝒅𝒕
− 𝒃𝒕

−∞

[ ]
−𝟐 𝒃𝒕 ∞
𝒆
¿
−𝟐 𝒃 𝟎
−∞ −𝟎
𝒆 𝒆
¿ +
−𝟐 𝒃 𝟐 𝒃

𝟏
𝑬= <∞
𝟐𝒃

y(t) is an energy signal

Energy and Power signal - Problems
𝒏
𝟑 . 𝒚 ( 𝒕 )=𝒕 𝒖 ( 𝒕 ) ;𝒏 >𝟎

∞
𝟐
𝑬 = ∫ ( 𝒕 𝒏 ) 𝒖( 𝒕 ) 𝒅𝒕
−∞

[ ]
𝟐𝒏 +𝟏 ∞
𝒕
¿
𝟐 𝒏+𝟏 𝟎
¿∞
∞
𝟏 𝟐
𝑷 𝒂𝒗𝒈 = lim
𝑻 →∞ 𝑻
∫ ( 𝒕𝒏 ) 𝒖(𝒕 ) 𝒅𝒕
−∞

[ ]
𝟐 𝒏+ 𝟏 𝑻
𝟏 𝒕
𝑷 𝒂𝒗𝒈 = lim
𝑻 →∞ 𝑻 𝟐 𝒏+𝟏 𝟎
y(t) is neither an energy signal nor a power signal

𝑷 𝒂𝒗𝒈 =∞
Basic Summation Formulas
Energy and Power signal - Problems
𝒏
𝟒 . 𝒙 [ 𝒏 ] = (− 𝟎 .𝟑 ) 𝒖 (𝒏 )
∞

∑ |𝒙 [𝒏]|
𝟐
𝑬=
𝒏=− ∞

∞
𝑬= ∑ 𝟎.𝟎𝟗 𝒏

𝒏= 𝟎

𝟏 𝟏
¿ ¿ <∞
𝟏 −𝟎 . 𝟎𝟗 𝟎 .𝟗𝟏

x[n] is a energy signal

Energy and Power signal - Problems
𝒋 𝟐𝒏
𝟓 . 𝒙 [ 𝒏 ] =𝟑 𝒆
𝑵
𝟏
∑
𝟐
𝑷 =𝐥𝐢𝐦 |𝒙 [𝒏]|
𝑵 → ∞ 𝟐 𝑵 +𝟏 𝒏=− 𝑵

𝑵
𝟏
𝑷 =𝐥𝐢𝐦 ∑
𝑵 → ∞ 𝟐 𝑵 +𝟏 𝒏=− 𝑵
𝟑
𝟐

𝟗 ( 𝟐 𝑵 +𝟏 )
𝑷 =𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝑵 →∞ 𝟐 𝑵 +𝟏

𝑷 =𝟗< ∞

x[n] is a power signal

Deterministic and Random Signal

Deterministic Signal
Signals which can be defined exactly by a mathematical formula are known
as deterministic signals

Random Signal
A random probability distribution or pattern that may be analysed statistically
but may not be predicted precisely.

Transformation of Independent Variables

 Time Shifting
 Time Scaling
 Time Reversal
 x(t+t0)
 Time Shifting
Continuous Time Signal

𝟏
t0 < 0, hence x(t+t0) is a advanced version of x(t)
The signal x(t) shifted towards left by t0 times

and ? 𝒙 ( 𝒕 )=𝟏 ; 𝒕 =𝟎
𝒙 ( 𝒕 −𝒕 𝟎 ) =𝟏 ; 𝒕 −𝒕 𝟎=𝟎
𝒙 ( 𝒕 )=𝟏 ; 𝒕 =𝟎 𝒙 ( 𝒕 −𝒕 𝟎 ) =𝟏 ; 𝒕 =𝒕 𝟎

𝒙 ( 𝒕 +𝒕 𝟎) =𝟏 ; 𝒕 + 𝒕 𝟎=𝟎 is a delayed version of x(t)

𝒙 ( 𝒕 +𝒕 𝟎) =𝟏; 𝒕 =−𝒕 𝟎 The signal x(t) shifted towards right by t0 times
 Time Shifting

Discrete Time Signal

n0 > 0, so that x[n-n0] is a delayed version of x[n]

 Time Reversal

Discrete Time Signal

Reflection x[-n] about n = 0

 Continuous Time Signal  Time Scaling

 Time Reversal

?
Transformation of Independent Variables
Continuous Time Signal

Sketch the following signals:

1. x(t+1) If the signals has all the transformation

2. x(-t-1) Steps

3. • 1st find Time Reversal

• 2nd Time Scale
4.
• 3rd Time Shift
1. Plot x(t+1)
 2. Plot

Time Reversal followed by Time Shift

x(-t-1) = x{-(t+1)}
x(-t)

-2 -1 0 -3 -2 -1 0

Time Shift followed by Time Reversal x{-(t+1)}

Origin -3 -2 -1 0
 3. Plot
𝒙 ( )𝟑
𝟐
𝒕

0 0.67 1 1.33 2

𝒙 ( 𝒕 )=𝟏 ; 𝒕 =𝟎 𝒙 ( 𝒕 )=𝟏 ; 𝒕 =𝟏 𝒙 ( 𝒕 )=𝟎 ; 𝒕 =𝟐

𝒙 ( )
𝟑
𝟐
𝟑
𝒕 =𝟏 ; 𝒕=𝟎
𝟐 𝒙 ( )
𝟑
𝟐
𝟑
𝒕 =𝟏 ; 𝒕=𝟏
𝟐
𝒙( )
𝟑
𝟐
𝟑
𝒕 =𝟎 ; 𝒕=𝟐
𝟐
𝒙 ( 𝒕 ) =𝟏 ; 𝒕=𝟎
𝟑
𝒙 ( 𝒕 ) =𝟏 ; 𝒕= 𝒙 ( 𝒕 ) =𝟎 ; 𝒕 =
𝟑 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒
𝟐
𝟐 𝟑 𝟐 𝟑
 4. Plot
𝒙 ( )
𝟑
𝟐
𝒕

0 0.67 1 1.33 2

=
𝒙
( ( ))
𝟑
𝟐
𝒕−
𝟐
𝟑
Time Scaling followed by Time Shifting

0 0.67 1 1.33 2
 Plot

𝒙 ( 𝟏 − 𝒕 )=𝒙 ( − ( 𝒕 −𝟏 ) )
Time Reversal followed by Time Shifting
 x(t)

-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

Plot

( ( ))
𝒙 ( − 𝟐 𝒕 +𝟑 )= 𝒙 −𝟐 𝒕 −
𝟑
𝟐
Time Reversal followed by Time Scaling followed by Time Shifting
Transformation of Independent Variables
Discrete Time Signal

𝒙 [𝒏]
𝟓
Sketch the following signals:
𝟒

𝟑
1.
𝟐 2.
𝟏
3.
𝒏 4.
𝒙 [𝒏−𝟑]

𝒏
𝒙 [𝟑𝒏]

𝟎 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝟓
𝒏
 𝒙 [−𝒏]

𝒙 [ − 𝒏+𝟑 ] =𝒙 [ −(𝒏−𝟑)]
𝒏
𝟓

𝒏
A discrete time signal x[n] is defined as

{
𝒏
𝟏+ , − 𝟒 ≤ 𝒏 <− 𝟏
𝒙 [ 𝒏]= 𝟒
𝟏 ,𝟎 ≤ 𝒏 ≤ 𝟒
𝟎 , 𝒆𝒍𝒔𝒆𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆

Find the value of x[n]

{
𝒙 [ 𝒏 ] = ….. , 𝟎 ,
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
, , ,𝟏 , 𝟏 , 𝟏 ,𝟏 , 𝟏 , 𝟎 … ..
𝟒 𝟒 𝟒 }
Operations on signals
 Addition
 Subtraction
 Multiplication
 Differentiation
 Integration

Nyquist Sampling Theorem

The Nyquist Sampling Theorem explains the relationship between the sample rate and the frequency of the
measured signal. It states that the sample rate must be greater than twice the highest frequency component of
interest in the measured signal. This frequency is often referred to as the Nyquist frequency, .
𝒇 𝒔 >𝟐 ∗ 𝒇 𝑵
Sampled at frequency

Sampled at frequency

Sampled at frequency