Research Methodology

Chapter: Research Design

 MEANING OF RESEARCH DESIGN
Decisions regarding what, where, when, how much, by
what means concerning an inquiry or a research study
constitute a research design.
“A research design is the arrangement of conditions
for collection and analysis of data in a manner that
aims to combine relevance to the research purpose
with economy in procedure.”
In fact, the research design is the conceptual structure within
which research is conducted; it constitutes the blueprint for
the collection, measurement and analysis of data. As such
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More explicitly, the design decisions happen
to be in respect of:
(i) What is the study about?
(ii) Why is the study being made?
(iii) Where will the study be carried out?
(iv) What type of data is required?
(v) Where can the required data be found?
(vi) What periods of time will the study
include?
(vii) What will be the sample design?
(viii) What techniques of data collection will
be used?
(ix) How will the data be analyzed?
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(x) In what style will the report be prepared?

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Keeping in view the above stated design decisions,
one may split the overall research design into the
following parts:
(a)the sampling design which deals with the method of
selecting items to be observed for the given study;
(b) the observational design which relates to the
conditions under which the observations are to be made;
(c) the statistical design which concerns with the question
of how many items are to be observed and how the
information and data gathered are to be analyzed; and
(d)the operational design which deals with the techniques
by which the procedures specified in the sampling,
statistical and observational
5 designs can be carried out.
 The important features of a research design as
under:
(i)It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of
information relevant to the research problem.
(ii)It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used
for gathering and analyzing the data.
(iii)It also includes the time and cost budgets since most
studies are done under these two constraints.

In brief, research design must, at least, contain—(a) a clear

statement of the research problem; (b) procedures and
techniques to be used for gathering information; (c) the
population to be studied; and (d) methods to be used in
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 Research Problem
A research problem is a specific issue, challenge, or gap in
knowledge that a researcher aims to address through their
study. It's the starting point of any research endeavor and should be
Examples of Research
clearly defined, Problems:
focused, and significant to the field of study.
1. Practical/Applied Problems:
•Inefficient Resource Allocation:
A company might be experiencing high costs due to inefficient Cli
resource allocation, leading to the research problem: "How can
[Company Name] optimize its resource allocation to reduce
operational costs?"
•Low Customer Satisfaction:
A business with declining customer satisfaction rates might
research: "What are the key factors influencing customer
satisfaction in [Specific Industry] and how can they be
improved?" 7
Public Health Crisis:
A city facing a surge in a specific disease might
investigate: "What are the contributing factors to the
recent increase in [Specific Disease] cases and how can
public health interventions be implemented effectively?"
Environmental Degradation:
A region experiencing deforestation might explore: "What
are the most effective Click
strategies for sustainable forest
icon to add picture

management in [Specific Region] to mitigate

deforestation and its impacts?"
2. Theoretical/Basic Problems:
Underexplored Phenomena:
A researcher might be interested in understanding the
impact of a new technology on society. The research
problem could be: "What are the long-term social and
psychological impacts of widespread use of [Specific
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Contradictory Findings:
If existing research offers conflicting results on a
topic, a researcher might investigate: "Why are there
conflicting findings in studies on [Specific Topic] and
what factors might explain these discrepancies?"
Unexplained Relationships:
Click icon to add picture
A researcher might want to understand the
connection between two variables, such as: "Is there
a relationship between social media usage and
levels of anxiety in teenagers?"
Gaps in Knowledge:
A researcher might identify a lack of research on a
specific topic within a particular context. For
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 NEED FOR RESEARCH DESIGN
A well-planned research design helps ensure that your
methods match your research aims, that you collect high-
quality data, and that you use the right kind of analysis to
answer your questions, utilizing credible sources. This allows
you to draw valid, trustworthy conclusions.

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 FEATURES OF A GOOD RESEARCH
DESIGN A research design appropriate
The question of good design
for a particular research
is related to the purpose or problem, usually involves the
objective of the research consideration of the following
problem and also with the factors:
nature of the problem to be (i) the means of obtaining
information;
studied. A design may be
(ii) the availability and skills
quite suitable in one case, of the researcher and his
but may be found wanting in staff, if any;
one respect or the other in (iii) the objective of the
the context of some other problem to be studied;
(iv) the nature of the problem
research problem. One
to be studied; and
single design cannot serve (v) the availability of time and
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the purpose of all types of money for the research work.
 IMPORTANT CONCEPTS RELATING TO RESEARCH
DESIGN
Variables: A variable in research simply refers to a person, place, thing,
or phenomenon that you are trying to measure in some way. Variables refer to
characteristics or attributes that can be measured, manipulated, or controlled. They
are the factors that researchers observe or manipulate to understand the relationship
between them and the outcomes of interest.

Variables can be defined by the type of data (quantitative or categorical) and by the
part of the experiment (independent or dependent).

Quantitative variables are two types: continuous variables and discrete

variables.
Age is an example of continuous variable, but the number of children is an
example of non-continuous variable
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 Control variables:
Dependent and One important
independent variables: If characteristic of a
one variable depends upon or is a good research
consequence of the other variable, it is design is to
termed as a dependent variable, and the minimise the
variable that is antecedent to the influence or effect
dependent variable is termed as an of extraneous
independent variable. variable(s).
For instance, if we say that height The technical term
depends upon age, then height is a ‘control’ is used
dependent variable and age is an
when we design the
independent variable.
study minimising
the effects of
Extraneous variable: Independent
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extraneous
 Experimental and
non-experimental
Confounded relationship: When the
hypothesis-testing
dependent variable is not free from the influence
research: When the
of extraneous variable(s), the relationship
purpose of research is to
between the dependent and independent
test a research
variables is said to be confounded by an
hypothesis, it is termed
extraneous variable(s).
as hypothesis-testing
research. It can be of the
Research hypothesis: When a prediction experimental design or of
or a hypothesized relationship is to be tested by the non-experimental
scientific methods, it is termed as research design.
hypothesis. The research hypothesis is a Research in which the
predictive statement that relates an independent independent variable is
manipulated is termed
variable to a dependent variable.
‘experimental hypothesis-
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testing research’ and a
research in which an
Experimental and control
groups: In an experimental hypothesis-testing Experiment:
research when a group is exposed to usual The process of examining
conditions, it is termed a ‘control group’, but the truth of a statistical
hypothesis, relating to
when the group is exposed to some novel or
some research problem, is
special condition, it is termed an ‘experimental known as an experiment.
group’. In the above illustration, the Group A can For example, we can
be called a control group and the Group B an conduct an experiment to
experimental group. If both groups A and B are examine the usefulness of
a certain newly developed
exposed to special studies programs, then both
drug. Experiments can be
groups would be termed ‘experimental groups.’ of two types viz., absolute
experiment and
Treatments: The different conditions under comparative experiment.
which experimental and control groups are put are
usually referred to as ‘treatments’.
If we want to determine through an experiment the
comparative impact of three 15 varieties of fertilizers on
 Example: Your university
dining hall is considering
DIFFERENT RESEARCH adding vegan versions of its
DESIGNS meals to its daily menu,
(1)Research design in case of exploratory something it has never
research studies;
offered before. However, the
(2)Research design in case of descriptive and
diagnostic research studies, and
university is hesitant to do
(3)Research design in case of hypothesis- so because of concerns that
testing research studies. the items will not be
Research design in case of exploratory research studies;
sufficiently popular, leading
to increased food waste.
Exploratory research studies:
Exploratory research is a methodology approach that Your university is eco-
investigates research questions that have not previously
conscious and will not
been studied in depth.
Exploratory research is often qualitative and primary in
add the items if this will
nature. However, a study with a large sample conducted increase food waste. As
in an exploratory manner can be quantitative as well. It is there is also a cost
also often referred to as interpretive research or a
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associated with
grounded theory approach due to its flexible and open-
developing the recipes,
Research design in case of exploratory research studies;
Three methods in the context of research design for such studies are:
(a) The survey of concerning literature; the most simple and fruitful method of
formulating precisely the research problem or developing hypothesis.

(b) The experience survey: The survey of people who have had practical experience
with the problem to be studied. The object of such a survey is to obtain insight into
the relationships between variables and new ideas relating to the research problem.

(c) The analysis of ‘insight-stimulating’ examples: is also a fruitful method for

suggesting hypotheses for research. It is particularly suitable in areas where
there is little experience to serve as a guide. This method consists of the
intensive study of selected instances of the phenomenon in which one is
interested. This includes the study of one or a few situations. It is focused
on complex situations and problems; this kind of situations occur when the
interrelations of several individuals are important.
Thus, in an exploratory of formulative research study which merely
leads to insights or 17hypotheses, whatever method or research design
Research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research studies:
Descriptive research studies are those studies which are concerned
with describing the characteristics of a particular individual, or of a
group.
Suppose an apparel brand wants to understand the fashion purchasing trends among
New York’s buyers, then it must conduct a demographic survey of the specific region,
gather population data, and then conduct descriptive research on this demographic
segment. Click icon to add picture

Diagnostic research: studies determine the frequency with which

something occurs or its association with something else. The studies
concerning whether certain variables are associated are examples of
diagnostic research studies. Diagnostic research attempts to identify,
examine and analyze problems to determine their causes. It can be
conducted in a variety
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of ways.
Research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research
studies:
The research design must make enough provision for protection against bias and must maximise
reliability, with due concern for the economical completion of the research study. The design in
such studies must be rigid and not flexible and must focus attention on the following:
(a)Formulating the objective of the study (what the study is about and why
is it being made?)
Click icon to add picture
(b)Designing the methods of data collection (what techniques of gathering
data will be adopted?)
(c)Selecting the sample (how much material will be needed?)
(d)Collecting the data (where can the required data be found and with what
time period should the data be related?)
(e)Processing and analysing the data.
(f)Reporting the findings

Thus, the research design

19 in case of descriptive/diagnostic studies is a
Difference between research designs for exploratory research
and descriptive/diagnostic research

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Research design in case of hypothesis-testing research
studies:
Hypothesis-testing research:
Hypothesis-testing research studies (generally known as
experimental studies) are those where the researcher tests
the hypotheses of causal relationships between Click iconvariables.
to add picture
Such studies require procedures that will not only reduce bias
and increase reliability, but will permit drawing inferences
about causality. Usually experiments meet this requirement.
Hence, when we talk of research design in such studies, we often
mean the design of experiments.
A doctor believes that 3D (Diet, Dose, and Discipline) is 90%
effective for diabetic
21 patients.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
Professor Fisher has enumerated three principles of experimental designs:
1. the Principle of Replication;
According to the Principle of Replication, the experiment should be repeated more
than once. Thus, each treatment is applied in many experimental units instead of
one. By doing so the statistical accuracy of the experiments is increased.

2. the Principle of Randomization; provides protection, when we conduct

an experiment, against the effect of extraneous factors by randomization. In other
words, this principle indicates that we should design or plan the experiment in such
a way that the variations caused by extraneous factors can all be combined under
the general heading of “chance.”

3. the Principle of Local Control: another important principle of

experimental designs. Under it the extraneous factor, the known source of
variability, is made to vary
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deliberately over as wide a range as necessary and this
Thank you