Communication Skills

HUM 103

Course Advisor: Dr. Muhammad Rafi Raza

09/01/2025 1
• What is a Paragraph?
• Paragraph structure
• How to write a well organized paragraph?
• Examples
 WHAT IS AN ESSAY?

• An essay is an organized
collection of your thoughts on a
particular topic.
• An essay consists of three major
parts:
1. Introduction
2. Main body
3. Conclusion 3
 Writing Process
• Pre-writing Stage
o Pre-writing
o Free-writing
o Note keeping
o Brain storming
o Mind Mapping
 Writing Stage
 Re-writing
4
 WHAT IS AN ESSAY?

• Essays can be either:

o Long or Short
o Serious or Humorous
o Formal or Informal
o Can describe your opinions
or be a synopsis of expert
opinions. 5
 WHAT IS AN ESSAY?
Writers use essays to:
• Describe or define a subject (What is an Essay?)
• Compare related items in a subject
(The Difference Between Apples and Oranges)
• Show cause and effect (If You Write It, They Will
Read)
• Write a narrative (My Summer Vacation)
• Explain a process (How to Write an Essay)
• Deliver an argument (The Case Against Essay
Questions)
• Critique (My Least Favorite Movie)
6
How to write an
Essay?
 HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY?
• An essay can have many purposes, but the basic structure is
the same no matter what.
• E.g. You may be writing an essay to argue for a particular
point of view or to explain the steps necessary to complete a
task.
– Either way, your essay will have the same basic format.
• If you follow a few simple steps, you will find that the essay
almost writes itself. You will be responsible only for supplying
ideas, which are the important part of the essay anyway.
Don't let the thought of putting pen to paper daunt
you. Get started!
 ESSAY FORMAT
These simple steps will guide you through the essay writing
process:
• Decide on your topic.
• Prepare an outline or diagram of your ideas.
• Write your thesis statement.
• Write the body.
• Write the main points.
• Write the subpoints.
• Elaborate on the subpoints.
• Write the introduction.
• Write the conclusion.
• Add the finishing touches.
 Choosing a Topic
You may have no choice as to your topic. If this is the case, you still may not be
ready to jump to the next step. Think about the type of paper you are expected
to produce. Should it be a general overview, or a specific analysis of the topic? If
it should be an overview, then you are probably ready to move to the next step. If
it should be a specific analysis, make sure your topic is fairly specific. If it is too
general, you must choose a narrower subtopic to discuss.

For example, the topic "KENYA" is a general one. If your objective is to write an
overview, this topic is suitable. If your objective is to write a specific analysis, this
topic is too general. You must narrow it to something like "Politics in Kenya" or
"Kenya's Culture”.

Once you have determined that your topic will be suitable, you can move on.
 Writing Your Outline
• Begin your outline by writing your topic at the top of the page.
• Next, write the Roman numerals I, II, and III, on left side of the
page.
• Next to each Roman numeral, write the main ideas that you have
about your topic, or the main points that you want to make.
• If you are trying to persuade, you want to write your best
arguments.
• If you are trying to explain a process, you want to write the
steps that should be followed.
• If you are trying to inform, you want to write the major
categories into which your information can be divided.
• Under each Roman numeral, write A, B, and C down the left side
of the page.
• Next to each letter, write the facts or information that support that
main idea.
• When you have finished, you have the basic structure for your
essay and are ready to continue.
 Composing a Thesis Statement
• The thesis statement tells the reader what the essay
will be about, and what point you, the author, will be
making.
– You know what the essay will be about.
– That was your topic.
– Now you must look at your outline or diagram and decide
what point you will be making.
– What do the main ideas and supporting ideas that you
listed say about your topic?
 Writing the Body Paragraphs
• The topic you have chosen must now be:
– explained
– described, or
– argued.
• Each main idea that you wrote down in your diagram
or outline will become one of the body paragraphs.
• If you had three or four main ideas, you will have three
or four body paragraphs.
– Each body paragraph will have the same basic
structure of writing a paragraph
Write the Introduction and Conclusion

Your essay lacks only two paragraphs now:

the introduction and the conclusion. These
paragraphs will give the reader a point of
entry to and a point of exit from your essay.

Don't stop just yet! One more step remains

before your essay is truly finished.
 Conclusion
• The conclusion brings closure to the reader, summing
up your points or providing a final perspective on
your topic. All the conclusion needs is three or four
strong sentences which do not need to follow any set
formula. Simply review the main points (being careful
not to restate them exactly) or briefly describe your
feelings about the topic. Even an anecdote can end
your essay in a useful way. The introduction and
conclusion complete the paragraphs of your essay.
 Add the Finishing Touches

• You have now completed all of the paragraphs

of your essay.
• Before you can consider this a finished product,
however, you must give some thought to the
formatting of your paper.
– Check the order of your paragraphs.
– Check the instructions for the assignment.
– Check your writing.
Once you have checked your work and perfected
your formatting,
your essay is finished.

Congratulations!
 Types of Essays
There are many different kinds of essays. The following are a some of the
most common ones:
• Descriptive Essay
• Definition Essay
• Compare and Contrast Essay
• Cause and Effect Essay
• Narrative Essay
• Argumentative Essay
• Critical Essay
• Evaluation Essay
• Analysis Essay
• Reflective Essay
• Expository Essay
18
 Descriptive Essay
The descriptive essay provides details about how something
looks, feels, tastes, smells, makes one feel, or sounds.
It can also describe what something is, or how something
happened.
These essays generally use a lot of sensory details. The essay
could be a list-like description that provides point by point
details.

Examples: A descriptive essay could describe . . .

* a tree in my backyard;
* a visit to the children's ward of a hospital;
19
 2. Definition Essay

A definition essay attempts to define a

specific term. It could try to pin down
the meaning of a specific word, or
define an abstract concept.
Examples: A definition essay may try and define . . .
* the meaning of an abstract concept, like love;
* the true meaning and importance of honesty;
* how the meaning of family goes deeper than just your blood
relatives. 20
 Compare/Contrast Essay
The compare/contrast essay discusses the similarities and
differences between two things, people, concepts, places, etc.
• A comparison essay usually discusses the similarities
between two things
• the contrast essay discusses the differences.

Examples: A compare/contrast essay may discuss …

* the likenesses and differences between two places, like New York City
and Los Angeles;
* the similarities and differences between two religions, like Christianity
and Islam;
* two people, like my brother and myself
21
 Cause/Effect Essay

The cause/effect essay explains why or how some

event happened, and what resulted from the event.
• A cause essay usually discusses the
reasons why something happened
• An effect essay discusses what happens
after a specific event or circumstance.

Examples: A cause/effect essay may explain . . .

* why a volcano erupts, and what
happens afterwards;
22
 Narrative Essay
The narrative essay tells a story. It can also be
called a "short story."
• Conversational in style
• Tells of a personal experience

Examples: A narrative essay could tell of ...

* my brother's and my fishing trips;
* a boring trip to the grocery store;
* my near-death experience at the beach.
23
 Argumentative Essay
An argumentative essay is one that attempts to
persuade the reader to the writer's point of view.
The writer can either be serious or funny, but
always tries to convince the reader of the validity
of his or her opinion.
Examples: An argumentative essay may persuade a reader
that . . .
* he or she should use public
transportation instead of driving
* cats are better than dogs
24
 Critical Essay
A critical essay analyzes the strengths, weaknesses
and methods of someone else's work.
A critical essay can be written about another essay,
story, book, poem, movie, or work of art.

Examples: A critical essay may analyze . . .

* how Shakespeare presents the character, Hamlet, in
his play, Hamlet;
* the strengths and weaknesses of the movie, Bol;
* the use of color in Monet's painting, Sunflowers.
25
 Evaluation Essay
• Each day we face various facts and scenes, and to
act adequately we need to develop our assessment
of them.
• Writing an evaluation essay is a good way to size up
a certain item, phenomenon, entity, or any other
object.
Examples:
– a vacation spot;
– a new restaurant;
– an educational website;
26
 Reflective Essay
• In reflective essay, you express your thoughts and
emotions about certain events or phenomena.
• Writing this type of essay is good training to
sharpen your critical thinking skills, as well as
your ability to develop and express opinions on a
particular topic.
Examples:
– a trip to an exotic place;
– a book that you have recently read;

27
 Analysis Essay
• An analysis essay assumes that you break a
larger subject into subcategories
– then examine each subcategory to form an opinion
about the whole
– explain how each subcategory is interrelated and
come up with your own conclusions
Examples:
• Economic crisis and the rate of unemployment;
• Replacing School Textbooks With Laptops

28
 Expository Essay
• They are pieces of scholarly writing which
describe or examine a process of some kind in a
comprehensive way:
– analyze a concept
– describe and explore a written work or an event;
– explain detailed instructions or a description of a
method or procedure
Examples:
• The Influences of Culture and Environment
• The Internet and Society
29
 Common methods of beginning:
Cohesion and Coherence
• The introduction and the
conclusion, although very important,
are often relatively short
• The bulk of an essay, both in form
and substance, is contained in the
main body

30
1. The introduction is intended to lead the reader into the topic
and clarify what the essay will specifically deal with;
• usually consists of one paragraph
• the amount of background information the context requires
• Introduction will contain a key sentence (or, if necessary,
more than one).

2. The main body deals with the major ideas that support the
statement;
• Each main idea is presented in a separate paragraph
• developed with supporting ideas in the form of explanations,
definitions, or similar, and illustrated with examples
where appropriate or necessary.

3. The conclusion brings the reader back to the purpose of the

essay and draws all the points together before making a final comment
on the result of the discussion.
31
 COHERENCE AND COHESION

Ultimately an essay will show a progression from a

general level (in the introduction) down to the specific
(the statement and body) and back up to the general
level again(conclusion). The reader will be expecting this
so it gives your essay a sense of completion. In other
words, the essay must have Coherence and Cohesion
• Coherence means connecting your ideas
together in a logical way, depending on the type of
essay you are writing.
• Cohesion means using pronouns, conjunctions
etc. to tie the ideas in your essay together.
32
Scratching outline for an Essay

33
 What is an Outline?

• An outline is a way of organizing key ideas

• An outline helps to set up an essay

• An outline is a tool to help revise an essay

 What is it?
• An outline is a general plan of the material
that is to be presented on a paper.

• The outline shows the order of the various

topics, the relative importance of each, and
the relationship between the various parts.
 Types of Outlines

Topic outline Sentence outline

the headings are all the headings

given in single words are expressed in
or brief phrases complete
sentences
 Rules for Outlining
1. Subdivide topics by a system of numbers and letters, followed by a
period.

Example:
I.
A.
B.
1.
2.
a.
b.
II.
A.
B.
 Rules for Outlining
2. Each heading and subheading must
have at least two parts.
3. Headings for parts of the paper such as,
Introduction and Conclusion, should
not be used.
4. Be consistent. Do not mix up the two
types of outlines. Use either whole
sentences of brief phrases, but not both.
Examples
 Sentence Outline
“Choices in College and After”
Thesis: The decisions I have to make in choosing college courses,
depend on larger questions I am beginning to ask myself about
my life’s work.
I. I have two decisions to make with respect to choosing college courses in the
immediate future.
A. One is whether to select a course in art history or in chemistry.
1. One time in my life, I planned to be a chemical engineer professionally.
2. On the other hand, I enjoy art and plan to travel and see more of it.
B. The second decision is whether to continue a third year of French beyond the basic college
requirement.
1. French might be useful both in engineering and travel.
2. Furthermore, I am eager to read good books which are written in French.
3. How necessary are these considerations in the light of other courses I might take instead?
II. My problem can be put in the form of a dilemma involving larger questions about
my whole future.
A. On the one hand I want to hold a highly-trained position in a money-making profession.
B. On the other hand I want to lead a certain kind of life, with capacities for values not
connected with the making of money.
III. I will have to make a decision balancing the conflicting needs I have described.
A. I will hold open the professional possibilities by selecting chemistry.
B. I will improve and solidify what cultural proficiency in another language I have already
gained, by electing French.
 Topic Outline
“Choices in College and After”
Thesis: The decisions I have to make in choosing college
courses, depend on larger questions I am
beginning to ask myself about my life’s work.
I. Two decisions described
A. Art history or chemistry
1. Professional considerations
2. Personal considerations
B. A third year of French?
1. Practical advantages of knowing a foreign language
2. Intellectual advantages
3. The issue of necessity
II. Definition of the problem
A. Decisions about occupation
B. Decisions about a kind of life to lead
III. Temporary resolution of the problem
A. To hold open a professional possibility: chemistry
B. To take advantage of cultural gains already made: French
So How to Make and Use an Essay Outline???

• An essay outline is probably the most

important friend you will have while writing
your essay.
• It is the skeleton of your ideas.
• It is the framework by which you will write a
killer essay. And frankly, it is difficult to write
one without an outline.
When you begin writing an essay outline, use the following model as a guide:
I. INTRODUCTION:

Thesis:_____________________________________________________.

II. BODY PARAGRAPH 1:

Opening Sentence:___________________________________________.
Detail 1:____________________________________________________.
Detail 2:____________________________________________________.
Detail 3:____________________________________________________.

III. BODY PARAGRAPH II:

Transition/Opening Sentence:__________________________________.
Detail 1:____________________________________________________.
Detail 2:____________________________________________________.
Detail 3:____________________________________________________.

IV. BODY PARAGRAPH III:

Transition/Opening Sentence:__________________________________.
Detail 1:____________________________________________________.
Detail 2:____________________________________________________.
Detail 3:____________________________________________________.

V. BODY PARAGRAPH IV:

Transition/Opening Sentence:__________________________________.
Detail 1:____________________________________________________.
Detail 2:____________________________________________________.
Detail 3:____________________________________________________.

VI. CONCLUSION:

Reconfirmed Thesis:_________________________________________.
 How does it do that?
An Outline Organizes The Major Parts Of Your Essay:

• Thesis Statement- The sentence that tells your reader your ultimate
point and what they should expect.
• Major Points- The facts that you are using to prove your main
point.
• Supporting Details- The examples, facts, quotations, etc.
• Transitions- The statement or information you will use to
transition form one major point to the next.
• Concluding Thoughts- Any thoughts that you would like to include at the
close of your paper to wrap things up and tie it all
together. NEVER INCLUDE NEW FACTS OR
INFORMATION IN YOUR CONCLUSION!
 References
• [Link]
ts/essay/

47