IMMUNITY

IMMUNITY

 This overall ability of the host to fight the

disease-causing organisms, conferred by the
immune system is called immunity.
 INNATE IMMUNITY

 Innate immunity is non-specific type of

defense, that is present at the time of birth.
 This is accomplished by providing different
types of barriers to the entry of the foreign
agents into our body.
Physical barriers Physiological Cellular barriers Cytokine barriers
barriers
• Skin on our body. • Acid in the Can phagocytose • The proteins,
• Mucus-coating of stomach. and destroy secreted by virus
the epithelium • Saliva in the microbes. infected cells are
lining. mouth. • Polymorpho- called interferons.
• The respiratory, • Tears from the nuclear • Interferons
gastro-intestinal, eyes. leucocytes(PMNL). protect non-
and urogenital • Monocytes. infected cells from
tracts help in • Macrophages further viral
trapping microbial • Lymphocytes infection.
growth.
ACQUIRED IMMUNITY

 Acquired immunity, on the other hand, pathogen specific.

 It is characterized by memory.
 This means that our body when it encounters a pathogen for the first
time produces a response called primary response which is of low
intensity.
 Subsequent encounter with the same pathogen elicits a highly
intensified secondary or anamnestic response.
 The primary and secondary immune responses are carried out with the
help of two special types of lymphocytes present in our blood, i.e., B-
lymphocytes and T-lymphocytes.
The B-lymphocytes produce an
army of proteins in response to
pathogens into our blood to fight
with them. These proteins are
called antibodies.
 ACQUIRED IMMUNITY

CELL MEDICATED
ANTIBODY
IMMUNE RESPONSE

HUMORAL MEDICATED
SELF & NON-SELF CELLS
IMMUNE RESPONSE
Tissue matching, blood group
matching are essential before
undertaking any graft/transplant
and even after this the patient has
to take immune – suppresants all
his/her life. The body is able to
differentiate ‘self ’ and ‘nonself’
and the cell-mediated immune
response is responsible for the
graft rejection
STRUCTURE OF AN ANTIBODY
MOLECULE
 Antibody molecule has four peptide chains, two small called light chains and two
longer called heavy chains.
 Hence, an antibody is represented as H2 L2.
 Different types of antibodies are produced in our body.
 IgA,IgM,IgE,IgG
 Active Immunity

 When a host is exposed to antigens, which may be in the form living or

dead microbes or other proteins, antibodies are produced in the host
body. This is called active immunity.
 Slow and takes time
 Eg. Immunisation
 Injecting the microbes deliberately during immunisation or infectious
organisms gaining access into body during natural infection induce
active immunity.
 Passive immunity
• When ready-made antibodies are directly
given to protect the body against foreign
agents, it is called passive immunity.
• The yellowish fluid colostrum secreted by
mother during the initial days of lactation
has abundant antibodies (IgA) to protect
the infant.
• The foetus also receives some antibodies
from their mother, through the placenta
during pregnancy. These are some
examples of passive immunity.
 VACCINATION AND
IMMUNISATION
 The principle of immunisation or vaccination is
based on the property of ‘memory’ of the
immune system.
 In vaccination, a preparation of antigenic
proteins of pathogen or inactivated/weakened
pathogen (vaccine) are introduced into the
body.
 The antibodies produced in the body against
these antigens would neutralise the
pathogenic agents during actual infection.
• If a person is infected with some deadly
microbes to which quick immune response is
required as in tetanus, we need to directly inject
the preformed antibodies, or antitoxin (a
preparation containing antibodies to the toxin).
• Even in cases of snakebites, the injection which
is given to the patients, contain preformed
antibodies against the snake venom. This type of
immunisation is called passive immunisation.
• Recombinant DNA technology has allowed the
production of antigenic polypeptides of pathogen
in bacteria or yeast. Vaccines produced using
this approach allow large scale production and
hence greater availability for immunisation, e.g.,
hepatitis B vaccine produced from yeast.
 ALLERGIES
• The exaggerated response of the immune system
to certain antigens present in the environment is
called allergy
• The substances to which such an immune
response is produced are called allergens.
• The antibodies produced to these are of IgE type.
• Common examples of allergens are mites in dust,
pollens, animal dander, etc.
• Symptoms include sneezing, watery eyes,
running nose and difficulty in breathing
 Due to the release of chemicals like
histamine and serotonin from the mast
cells.
 For determining the cause of allergy, the
patient is exposed to or injected with very
small doses of possible allergens, and the
reactions studied.
 The use of drugs like anti-histamine,
adrenalin and steroids quickly reduce the
symptoms of allergy.
 Somehow, modern-day children in metro
cities of India suffer from allergies and
asthma due to sensitivity to the
environment
 Auto Immunity

 sometimes, due to genetic and other

unknown reasons, the body attacks self-
cells. This results in damage to the body
and is called auto-immune disease
 Rheumatoid arthritis

.
 Immune System in the
Bodyorgans
Lymphoid

primary lymphoid secondary lymphoid

organs organs

Bone marrow Spleen, Lymph

Thymus nodes, Tonsils,
Peyer’s patches of
After maturation the
small intestine and
lymphocytes migrate to
Appendix
secondary lymphoid
immature organs
lymphocytes The secondary lymphoid
differentiate organs provide the sites
into antigen- for
sensitive interaction of
lymphocytes lymphocytes with the
antigen, which then
proliferate
to become effector cells.
• The bone marrow is the main lymphoid organ where all
blood cells including lymphocytes are produced.
• The thymus is a lobed organ located near the heart and
beneath the breastbone.
• The thymus is quite large at the time of birth but keeps
reducing in size with age and by the time puberty is
attained it reduces to a very small size.
• Both bone-marrow and thymus provide micro-environments
for the development and maturation of T-lymphocytes.
• The spleen is a large bean shaped organ. It mainly contains
lymphocytes and phagocytes.
• Acts as a filter of the blood by trapping blood-borne
microorganisms.
• large reservoir of erythrocytes.
• The lymph nodes are small solid structures
located at different points along the lymphatic
system.
• Lymph nodes serve to trap the micro-
organisms or other antigens, which happen to
get into the lymph and tissue fluid.
• Antigens trapped in the lymph nodes are
responsible for the activation of lymphocytes
present there and cause the immune response.
• There is lymphoid tissue also located within the
lining of the major tracts (respiratory, digestive
and urogenital tracts) called mucosa
associated lymphoid tissue (MALT). It
constitutes about 50 per cent of the lymphoid
tissue in human body
 AIDS

 Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome

 Syndrome means a group of symptoms
 Human Immuno deficiency Virus (HIV), a
member of a group of viruses called
retrovirus, which have an envelope
enclosing the RNA genome

 (
(a)sexual contact with infected person,
(b)by transfusion of contaminated blood and
blood products
(c)by sharing infected needles as in the case of
intravenous drug abusers
(d)from infected mother to her child through
placenta

It is important to note that HIV/AIDS is not spread by mere touch or

physical contact; it spreads only through body fluids
HIV/AIDS infected persons are not isolated from family and society.
There is always a time-lag between the infection and appearance of
AIDS symptoms. This period may vary from a few months to many
years
Prevention of AIDS

 As AIDS has no cure, prevention is the best option

 National AIDS Control Organization (NACO) and other non-
governmental organization (NGOs) are doing a lot to educate
people about AIDS.
 WHO has started a number of programmes to prevent the
spreading of HIV infection.
 Making blood (from blood banks) safe from HIV,
 ensuring the use of only disposable needles and syringes in
public and private hospitals and clinics,
 free distribution of condoms, controlling drug abuse,
 advocating safe sex and promoting regular check-ups for HIV in
susceptible populations, are some such steps taken up.
 VIRUS

MACROPHAGE [ HIV
FACTORY ]

VIRAL RNA VIRAL DNA [ REVERSE TRANSCRIPTASE

ENZYME ]

ENTER HOST DNA AND

PRODUCES VIRAL PARTICLES

ENTER REDUCE IMMUNITY

HELPER T CELL

REPLICATE AND PRODUCE DESTROY HELPER T CELL

VIRAL PROGENY
Diagnostic test for AIDS
 Enzyme linked immuno-sorbent assay (ELISA).
 Treatment of AIDS with anti-retroviral drugs is only partially effective.
 They can only prolong the life of the patient but cannot prevent death,
which is inevitable.
 CANCER
 In our body, cell growth and differentiation is highly
controlled and regulated.
 In cancer cells, there is breakdown of these regulatory
mechanisms. There is uncontrolled division of cells
 Normal cells show a property called contact inhibition
by virtue of which contact with other cells inhibits
their uncontrolled growth.
 Cancer cells appears to have lost this property. As a
result of this, cancerous cells just continue to divide
giving rise to masses of cells called tumors.
 Benign and Malignant
• Benign tumors normally remain confined to their
original location and do not spread to other parts
of the body and cause little damage.
• The malignant tumors, on the other hand are a
mass of proliferating cells called neoplastic or
tumor cells.
• These cells grow very rapidly, invading and
damaging the surrounding normal tissues.
• As these cells actively divide and grow they also
starve the normal cells by competing for vital
nutrients.
• Cells sloughed from such tumors reach distant
sites through blood, and wherever they get lodged
in the body, they start a new tumor there.
• This property called metastasis is the most feared
property of malignant tumors.
 Cancer detection and diagnosis
 Early detection of cancers is essential as it allows the disease to be
treated successfully
 Biopsy and histopathological studies of the tissue and blood and bone
marrow tests for increased cell counts in the case of leukemias
 In biopsy, a piece of the suspected tissue cut into thin sections is stained
and examined under microscope (histopathological studies) by a
pathologist.
 Techniques like radiography (use of X-rays), CT (computed tomography)
and MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) are very useful to detect cancers
of the internal organs.
 Antibodies against cancer-specific antigens
 Techniques of molecular biology
 Treatment of cancer
 Surgery, radiation therapy and immunotherapy.
 In radiotherapy, tumor cells are irradiated lethally, taking proper
care of the normal tissues surrounding the tumor mass.
 Several chemotherapeutic drugs are used to kill cancerous cells.
Some of these are specific for particular tumors.
 Majority of drugs have side effects like hair loss, anemia, etc.
 Most cancers are treated by combination of surgery,
radiotherapy and chemotherapy.
 Tumor cells have been shown to avoid detection and destruction
by immune system. Therefore, the patients are given substances
called biological response modifiers such as a-interferon which
activates their immune system and helps in destroying the tumor
Causes of cancer :
 Transformation of normal cells into cancerous
neoplastic cells may be induced by physical,
chemical or biological agents. These agents are
called carcinogens.
 Ionising radiations like X-rays and gamma rays and
non-ionizing radiations like UV cause DNA damage
leading to neoplastic transformation.
 The chemical carcinogens present in tobacco
smoke have been identified as a major cause of
lung cancer.
 Cancer causing viruses called oncogenic viruses
have genes called viral oncogenes.
 Furthermore, several genes called cellular
oncogenes (c-onc) or proto oncogenes have been
identified in normal cells which, when activated
DRUGS AND ALCOHOL ABUSE
 Opioids are the drugs, which bind to specific opioid
receptors present in our central nervous system and
gastrointestinal tract.
 Heroin commonly called smack is chemically
diacetylmorphine which is a white, odourless, bitter
crystalline compound.
 This is obtained by acetylation of morphine which is
extracted from the latex of poppy plant Papaver
somniferum .
 Generally taken by snorting and injection, heroin is a
depressant and slows down body functions
 Cannabinoids are a group of chemicals which
interact with cannabinoid receptors present
principally in the brain.
 Natural cannabinoids are obtained from the
inflorescences of the plant Cannabis sativa.
 The flower tops, leaves and the resin of
cannabis plant are used in various combinations
to produce marijuana, hashish, charas and
ganja.
 Generally taken by inhalation and oral
ingestion, these are known for their effects on
cardiovascular system of the body.
Coca alkaloid or cocaine is obtained from coca plant
Erythroxylum coca, native to South America.
It interferes with the transport of the neuro-
transmitter dopamine. Cocaine, commonly called
coke or crack is usually snorted.
It has a potent stimulating action on central
nervous system, producing a sense of euphoria and
increased energy.
Excessive dosage of cocaine causes hallucinations.
Other well-known plants with hallucinogenic
properties are Atropa belladona and Datura .These
days cannabinoids are also being abused by some
sportspersons.
• Drugs like barbiturates, amphetamines,
benzodiazepines, and other similar
drugs, that are normally used as
medicines to help patients cope with
mental illnesses like depression and
insomnia, are often abused.
• Morphine is a very effective sedative
and painkiller, and is very useful in
patients who have undergone surgery.
 Tobacco
 It is smoked, chewed or used as a snuff.
 Tobacco contains a large number of chemical substances
including nicotine, an alkaloid.
 Nicotine stimulates adrenal gland to release adrenaline and nor-
adrenaline into blood circulation, both of which raise blood
pressure and increase heart rate.
 Smoking is associated with increased incidence of cancers of
lung, urinary bladder and throat, bronchitis, emphysema,
coronary heart disease, gastric ulcer, etc.
 Tobacco chewing is associated with increased risk of cancer of
the oral cavity.
 Smoking increases carbon monoxide (CO) content in blood and
reduces the concentration of haem bound oxygen.
 This causes oxygen deficiency in the body.
Adolescence and Drug/Alcohol
Abuse
 The period between 12-18 years of age may be thought of as
adolescence period.
 In other words, adolescence is a bridge linking childhood and
adulthood.
 Adolescence is accompanied by several biological and
behavioural changes.
 Adolescence, thus is a very vulnerable phase of mental and
psychological development of an individual.
 Addiction is a psychological attachment to certain effects –such
as euphoria and a temporary feeling of well-being –associated
with drugs and alcohol.
 reckless behaviour, vandalism and violence.
 The most common warning signs of drug and alcohol
abuse among youth include;
 drop in academic performance
 Unexplained absence from school/college
 lack of interest in personal hygiene
 withdrawal
 isolation
 depression
 fatigue
 aggressive and rebellious behaviour
 deteriorating relationships with family and friends
 loss of interest in hobbies
 change in sleeping and eating habits
 Fluctuations in weight, appetite, etc.
The chronic use of drugs and
alcohol damages nervous
system and liver (cirrhosis).
 Another misuse of drugs is what certain sportspersons do to
enhance
their performance.
 They misuse narcotic analgesics, anabolic steroids, diuretics
and certain hormones in sports to increase muscle strength
and bulk and to promote aggressiveness and as a result
increase athletic performance.
 The side-effects of the use of anabolic steroids in females
include masculinisation (features like males), increased
aggressiveness, mood swings, depression, abnormal
menstrual cycles, excessive hair growth on the face and
body, enlargement of clitoris, deepening of voice.
 In males it includes acne, increased aggressiveness, mood
swings, depression, reduction of size of the testicles,
decreased sperm production, potential for kidney and liver
dysfunction, breast enlargement, premature baldness,
enlargement of the prostate gland.
 These effects may be permanent with prolonged use. In the
adolescent male or female, severe facial and body acne, and
premature closure of the growth centres of the long bones
may result in stunted growth.
Prevention and Control

 Avoid undue peer pressure

 Seeking help from parents and peers
 Looking for danger signs
 Seeking professional and medical help