CET 205

SURVEYING & GEOMATICS

MODULE 1
 CET 205 – SURVEYING & GEOMATICS

MODULE 1

Introduction to surveying - Principles, linear, angular and graphical

methods, survey stations, survey lines – ranging, bearing of survey lines,
local attraction, declination, methods of orientation (by compass and by
back sighting)

Levelling – Principles of levelling- dumpy level, booking and reduced

levels, methods- simple differential, reciprocal levelling, profile levelling
and cross sectioning, digital and auto level, errors in levelling

Contouring – characteristics, methods, uses

 CET 205 – SURVEYING & GEOMATICS

Course Outcomes (CO)

Apply surveying techniques and principles of leveling for the

CO1 preparation of contour maps, computation of area-volume and
sketching mass diagram
INTRODUCTION TO
SURVEYING
 Surveying
• Surveying is the art of determining the relative positions
of points on, above or beneath the surface of the earth
by means of direct and indirect measurements of
distance, direction and elevation.

• It also includes the art of establishing points by

predetermined angular and linear measurements.
 Importance of surveying
 The object of survey is to prepare plan or map so that it
may represent the area on a horizontal plane.

 A plan or map is the horizontal projection of an

area and shows only the horizontal distances of the points.

 The layout of alignment of roads, railways,

tunnels, canals, transmission lines etc is fixed based on
survey.
 Plan and Map
 A plan is a graphical representation, to some scale, of the features
on, near or below the surface of the earth as projected on a
horizontal plane which is represented by the plane of paper on
which the plan is drawn.

 The representation is called a map, if the scale is small, while it is

called a plan, if the scale is large.

 Scale : Scale is the fixed ratio that every distance on the plan bears
with corresponding distance on the ground.
 eg: 1 cm = 10 m
 Objectives of surveying
The main objectives are:

 Preparation of archaeological, geological and military maps.

 Preparation of navigational chart for use on land, sea.
 Preparation of astronomical charts showing the locations of the sun,
moon
and astronomical bodies.
 Measurement of distance between points.
 Determination of relative positions of points.
 Establishment of boundaries of properties.
 Layout of alignment of engineering structures.
 Measurement of quantities of earthwork.
 Plot subdivision.
 Securing data for making plans and maps.
 Plotting of profiles to find the capacity of reservoir, canal etc.
 Classification of Surveying
1. Primary classification of surveying (shape of earth)

2. Classification based on nature of field of survey

3. Classification based on object of survey

4. Classification based on instruments used

5. Classification based on method employed

 Classification of Surveying
1. Primary classification of surveying (shape of earth)

1. Plane surveying 2. Geodetic survey

2. Plane surveying
• Surface of earth is considered to be plane surface
• Applicable for small area - less than 260 km2
• Survey lines are considered straight
• All triangles formed by survey lines are considered as plane triangles
• All angles are considered to be plane angles
• Used For most engineering projects such as canal, railway,
highway, building, pipeline, etc.
2. Geodetic survey
 True shape of earth (spheroid) is taken into consideration
 It is carried out if the area is more than 260 km2.
 Used for highly precise work and is adopted for surveying of large areas
 Survey lines are considered as curved
 All triangles formed by survey lines are considered as spherical
triangles
 [Link] based on nature of field of
survey
1. Land surveying
Land surveying mainly deals with the natural and artificial features of a
country such as hills, rivers, buildings, towns, villages, buildings, roads etc.

1. Topographical Survey - to determine the position of natural features such

as rivers, streams, hills, etc, and artificial features such as roads and canals on
surface of earth. The purpose of this surveys is to prepare maps which are
called topo- sheets.
2. Cadastral survey - used to determining property boundaries including those
of
fields, houses, plots of land, etc.
3. City surveys - used for construction and development of towns including
roads, drainage, water supply, sewage street network etc,
2. Marine/ Hydrographic survey

Those are surveys of large water bodies for navigation, tidal monitoring,
the construction of harbours- determination of mean sea level-velocity of
flow water spread area- depth of water bodies etc.

3. Astronomical survey

 Used to determine the absolute location of stars, planets, etc.

 Astronomical survey uses the observations of the heavenly
bodies (sun,
moon, stars etc) to fix the absolute locations of places on the surface of the
earth
[Link] based on object of
survey
1. Engineering survey - used to acquire the required data for the planning,
design and Execution of engineering projects like roads, bridges, canals, dams,
railways, buildings, etc.
2. Military or Defence Survey -is carried out to map places of military and
strategic importance
3. Archeological Survey- This survey is taken out to gather information about
sites that are important from archaeological considerations and for unearthing
relics of the ancient past.
4. Geological survey – carried out to determine the different strata of earths
crust, to study the earthquake, earth structure, etc.
5. Mine survey – is carried out to explore mineral wealth
[Link] based on instruments used

1. Chain survey
2. Compass survey
3. Plane table survey
4. Levelling
5. Theodolite surveying
6. Tacheometric surveying
7. Photogrammetric surveying
8. Total station surveying
1. Chain Survey
This is the simple method of taking the linear measurement
using a chain or tape with no angular measurements made.
This type of surveying is used over small and leveled
areas.
2. Compass survey
In this surveying, a compass is used to determine the direction
of survey lines, and the length of survey lines are measured by
a chain or tape.

3. Plane table survey

This is a quick survey carried out in the field with the
measurements and drawings made at the same time using a
plane table
 4. Levelling
Levelling is used to find out elevations of points with
reference to datum and difference in elevation
between various points. Vertical distances are
measured using dumpy level and levelling staff.

5. Theodolite surveying
Theodolite surveying is the most accurate method of
surveying in which theodolite is used to measure the both
horizontal and vertical angles.

6. Tacheometric surveying
Tacheometric surveying is a method of surveying in which the horizontal and vertical
distances of relative points are determined without using any sophisticated
instruments such as chain, tape, etc.
7. Photogrammetric/aerial survey
These types of surveying are done by taking
photographs from elevated ground stations. It deals
with the production of maps such as topographic or
planimetric maps by compiling number of
photographs taken in that area.

[Link] station Survey

A total station is an electronic theodolite that
measures angles and distances between points.
It’s the most advanced surveying instrument
nowadays, capable of measuring the horizontal
and vertical angle to ±3 seconds
5. Classification based on method
employed1. :Triangulation survey
2. Traverse survey

3. Triangulation survey
 In order to make the survey manageable, the area to be surveyed is first
covered with series of triangles.
 Triangulation is a process of providing a skeleton or framework consisting of a
number of connected triangles.
 Triangulation means dividing the area to be surveyed into a number of
well defined triangles and sides of the various triangles measured directly in the
field with suitable instrument.
 Triangulation is preferred in areas, where it is easy to establish stations
at reasonable distances apart, with intervisibility.
 In crowded areas it is not suitable as the intervisibility of stations is
affected.
 The main disadvantage of triangulation is the accumulation of error in the lengths
and direction of lines
 In triangulation, entire area to be surveyed is covered with a framework
of triangles.
2. Traverse survey
 Traversing is a type of survey in which a number of connected survey lines
form the framework and the directions and lengths of the survey lines
are measured with the help of an angle measuring instrument and a tape or
chain respectively.
 If the bearing and distance of a place of a known point is known: it is possible
to establish the position of that point on the ground.
 From this point, the bearing and distances of other surrounding points may be
established.
 A traverse station is each of the points of the traverse, while the traverse leg is
the straight line between consecutive stations.
 Traverses may either be open or closed.
 1. Closed Traverse :
 When a series of connected lines forms a closed circuit, i.e.
when the finishing point coincides with the starting point of a
survey, it is called as a ‘closed traverse’, here ABCDEA
represents a closed traverse.
 Closed traverse is suitable for the survey of boundaries of ponds
B

A C

E D
 2. Open Traverse :
• When a sequence of connected lines extends along a general
direction and does not return to the starting point, it is known
as ‘open traverse’ or (unclosed traverse). Here ABCDE represents
an open traverse.
• Open traverse is suitable for the survey of roads, rivers etc.
 Methods of Surveying
[Link] method – linear measurements are taken –
linear horizontal distance between two points
1. Direct method 2. Indirect method

Direct method without instrument :

[Link] 2. Judging the distance 3. Time
interval
Direct method with instrument :
• Chaining – uses chain and tape for distance measurement
• Passometer- records the paces when man moves from one point to another
• Odometer – measures the [Link] revolutions (R) of a wheel( D =
R*Perimeter)
• Speedometer – records the distance travelled
• Pedometer – automatically measures the distance-best for measuring
vertical distances

Indirect method – 1)optical instruments to compute the required distance by

simple
2. Angular method – angular measurements are
taken
 Compass Surveying (direction of lines)
 Theodolite surveying (horizontal and vertical
angles)

Compass Theodolite
3. Graphical method

• Plane table surveying

 Plane tabling is a graphical method of surveying in which the

field observations and plotting proceed simultaneously.
 It helps in preparing a manuscript map in the field while the topographer sees
the ground.
 It eliminates intermediate steps of recording and transcribing field notes.
 Principle of Surveying
1. Working from whole to part.
2. Location of a point by measurement from
two reference points.
 1. Working from whole to part
 By covering the area to be surveyed with a number of spaced out control
point called primary control points whose pointing have been determined
with a high level of precision using sophisticated equipments.
 Based on these points as theoretic, a number of large triangles are
drawn. Secondary control points are then established to fill the gaps
with lesser precision than the primary control points. At a more detailed and
less precise level, tertiary control points at closer intervals are finally
established to fill in the smaller gaps.
 The main purpose of surveying from the whole to the part is to localize the
errors as working the other way round would magnify the errors and introduce
distortions in the survey.
 In partial terms, this principle involve covering the area to be surveyed with

large triangles. These are further divided into smaller triangles and the

process continues until the area has been sufficiently covered with small

triangles to a

level that allows detailed surveys to be made in a local level. Error is

minimized in the whole operation as the vertices of the large triangles are

fixed using higher precision instruments.

 2. Location of a point by measurement from two
reference points.

Using measurements from two control points to fix other points. Given two
points whose length and bearings have been accurately determined, a line can
be drawn to join them hence surveying has control reference points. The
locations of various other points and the lines joining them can be fixed by
measurements made from these two points and the lines joining them. For an
example, if A and B are the control points, the following operations can be
performed to fix other points.
i) Using points A and B as the centers, ascribe arcs and fix (where they intersect).

ii) Draw a perpendicular from D along AB to a point C.

iii)To locate C, measure distance AB and use your protractor to equally

measure angle ABC.

iv)To locate C the interior angles of triangle ABC can be measured. The lengths
of the sides AC and BC can be calculated by solving the triangle.

v)Angle ABC and distance AC are measured and point C is plotted either
by protracting an angle and swinging an arc from A.
 The process of surveying:
• 3 Processes:

1. Reconnaissance
2. Field work and measurements
3. Office work
 (a) Reconnaissance survey

• This is a pre-field work and measurement phase.

• It requires taking an overall inspection of the area to be surveyed to

obtain a general picture before commencement of any
serious survey.
• Walking through the site enables one to understand the terrain and
helps in determining the survey method to be adopted, and the
scale to be used.
• The initial information obtained in this stage helps in the successful
planning and execution of the survey.
 (b) Field work and measurement:

• This is the actual measurements in the field and the recordings

in the field notebook.
• Field work consists of
– Measuring distances and angles
– Locating the details
– Recording the field notes
– Determining relative altitude pf points
– Setting out boundaries, buildings, road, culverts etc.

• To get the best results in the field, the surveyor must be

acquainted with the functions of the equipments and take
good care of them.
 (c) Office work

• This is the post field work stage in which data

collected and recordings in the field notebooks
are decoded.
• Used to prepare the charts, plans and maps
CHAIN SURVEYING
 CHAIN SURVEYING
 This is the simplest and oldest form of land surveying of an area using
linear measurements only.
 Chain surveying is recommended when:
1. The ground surface is more or less level
2. A small area is to be surveyed
3. A small-scale map is to be prepared
4. The formation of well-conditioned triangles is easy
5. Area is open
6. Details to be filled up are simple and less
 In this method of surveying the area to be surveyed is divided into network
of triangles and sides of various triangles are measured in the directly in the
field using chain or tape and no angular measurements are made
OBJECTS OF CHAIN SURVEY

 Chain survey is done for finding out area of the plots and land.
 It is used for the preparation of plans
 Used for preparing maps
 Used to establish benchmark and other survey stations
 To divide the land into various plots
 Used to fix the boundaries of plot
 To secure data for execution of engineering projects, ie alignment of
roads, railway lines, canals etc.
INSTRUMENTS USED IN CHAIN SURVEYING

 Chain
 Tape
 Arrows
 Peg
 Ranging rod
 Cross staff, Optical square
 plumb Bob
 1. CHAIN

 The chain consists of [Link] links made of galvanised mild steel wires of 4 mm
diameter.
 Chain composed of 100 or 150 links
 The ends of links are bent into a loops and connected together by means of
three oval shaped rings
 The length of each link is the distance between two consecutive middle rings.
 Provided with brass handles at each end.
 Brass rings provided at every meter
 Different tallies at various intervals(5m)
 TYPES OF CHAINS

1. METRIC CHAIN

 Available in 5m, 10 m, 20 m and 30 m

 Generally used 20 m or 30 m long with 100 or 150 links
respectively
 Each link = 20 cm
 According to BIS , the metric chains used for surveying
 2. GUNTER’S CHAIN OR
SURVEYOR’S CHAIN
 Length = 66 ft
 100 links
 1 link = 0.66ft or 7.92 inches
 suitable for taking length in miles

3. ENGINEER’S CHAIN
 length = 100ft
 100 links
 1 link = 1 ft long
 used to measure length in feet and area in
[Link]
4. REVENUE CHAIN
 Length = 33 ft
2(1/16
)
 16 links , 1 link = 2 (1/6) FT
 Used for cadastral survey- used for distance measurements in feet & inches for smaller
i. Metric chains (5,10,20, 30 m)

ii. Engineers chain (100 ft long, 100 links)

iii. Gunter's chain (66 ft long, 100 links)

iv. Revenue chain (33 ft long, 16

links)
2. TAPES - used to measure accurate measurements

i. Cloth or linen tape

ii. Metallic tape
iii. Steel tape -10,20,30 & 50 metres
iv. Invar tape (made of alloy of nickel 36% and steel 64
%)
 3. ARROWS

Arrows or marking pins are made of good quality

tempered steel wire of dia 4mm
 Used for marking temporary stations
 Arrow are inserted into ground after every chain length in
the ground
 Length = 20 to 50 cm , commonly 40 cm
 One end is sharp end , other is bent into a loop for facility
of carrying
 They are used to mark the end of the chain length; if the length of the line
to be measured is more than a chain length.
 With one chain 10 arrows are supplied.
 4. PEGS
 Wooden pegs are used to mark the position of
stations or terminal ponts in survey line
 They are made of stout timber, generally
2.5 cm to 3 cm square and 15 cm long
 It can be driven into ground using hammer
and kept about 4 cm projecting above surface
 5. RANGING RODS
 Length = 2 to 3m, band width = 20 cm
 Painted with alternative bands of black and white or red & white
 Used to range some intermediate points in the survey line
 Provided with iron shoe at bottom to facilities driving into ground
 When used for large distances, a red, white, or yellow flag is tied at the
top

 Offset rod is used for measuring small

offsets from the survey line when the work
is of an ordinary nature.
 Ranging rods of greater length, e.g. 3 to 6 m,
are called ranging poles or range poles, and
are used for very long survey lines
6. CROSS STAFF

Used to set out right angles to a chain line

Main parts of cross staff- two pairs of vertical slits and a pole
to
mount it

Types
a) Open cross staff – 90 degrees lines estabilshed
b) French cross staff – 90, 45 degrees lines estabilshed
c) adjustable cross staff – any degree lines estabilshed

a
b c
6. CROSS STAFF
 7. PLUMB BOB

 While chaining in sloping ground, plumb bob is used to transfer the points
to
ground.
 It is also used for testing the verticality of ranging rods etc.
Principle of chain surveying – chain triangulation

• The principle of chain surveying is triangulation.

• Triangulation is a process of providing a skeleton or framework

consisting of a number of connected triangles, as triangle is the only
simple figure that can be plotted from the lengths of its sides
measured in the field.

• This means that the area to be surveyed is divided into a number of

small triangles which should be well conditioned. In chain surveying
the sides of the triangles are measured directly on the field by chain
or tape, and no angular measurements are taken.

• Here, the tie lines and check lines control the accuracy of work.
Triangulation method
 Well Conditioned and ill conditioned triangles
• A triangle is said to be well-conditioned when no angle in it is less than 30° or

greater than 120° .

• An equilateral triangle is considered to be the best well conditioned triangle -

ideal triangle

• Well-conditioned triangles are preferred because their apex points are very

sharp and can be located by a single ‘dot’.

• In such a case, there is no possibility of relative displacement of the

plotted point.

• A triangle in which an angle is less than 30° or more than 120° is said to be ill-

conditioned
- ill conditioned triangle
TERMS RELATED TO CHAIN SURVEYING
 FRAMEWORK

 The system of lines or triangles covering

the area to be surveyed is called a
framework or skeleton of surveying
 In the figure ABCD shows the framework.
 The arrangement of triangles depend upon
area, nature and obstructions present in
land
Survey stations and survey lines
 SURVEY STATIONS
• Survey stations
 A survey station is a point of importance at the beginning and
end of a chain line.
 They may occur at any convenient position on chain line, such
stations may be

 Main stations
 Subsidiary stations or Tie stations
  Main stations

 Main stations – is a prominent point on the survey line and can

be either at the beginning of the chain line or at the end

 Stations taken along the boundary of area as controlling

points are called Main stations

 Lines joining main stations are called Main survey lines

 Main survey lines covers the whole area to be surveyed

 Main stations denoted by with letters A,B,C,D

 main survey lines in figure are AB, BC, CD, DA ,DB

  Subsidiary stations or tie stations

 Subsidiary stations or tie stations - are the points selected on the

main survey lines where it is necessary to run auxiliary lines to
locate the interior details.
 Subsidiary stations are taken to run subsidiary lines for dividing
area into triangles
 For checking the accuracy of triangles and locating interior angles
 subsidiary stations are denoted by S1, S2 etc. in figure
 Tie station are subsidiary stations taken on main survey line
– Line joining tie stations is called tie lines denoted by T1, T2
etc in figure, used for locating interior details
 Survey lines
Base line - It is the longest main survey line and passing through the centre of
the area. It is the most important line as all other survey lines are fixed with respect
to this line. Accuracy of the whole survey work depends upon the accuracy of
the base line

Check line – lines which check the accuracy of the fieldwork are called check lines
or proof lines. The line joining the apex point of a triangle to some fixed point on
its base is known as the ‘check line’. It is taken to check the accuracy of the
triangle. Sometimes this line helps to locate interior details.

Tie line – A chain line joining two tie stations is called tie line. These are provided
to locate the interior details which are far away from the main lines.
 OFFSETS

• The lateral measurement taken to an object from the chain line is

known as ‘offset’.

• The distance measured right or left of the chain line to locate details like

boundaries, culverts, etc is called offset.

• Offsets are taken to locate objects with reference to the chain line.

• They may be of two kinds - perpendicular and oblique.

OFFSETS
• Perpendicular offsets – When the lateral measurements for
locating details are at right angles to the chain line,
the offsets are called perpendicular offsets.

• Oblique offsets - When the lateral measurements for

locating details are not at right angles to the chain line,
the offsets are called oblique offsets. These are used
to check the accuracy of perpendicular offsets and to
locate the corners of buildings more accurately.
 The field book

• The book in which field measurements are noted is known as the ‘field book’. The size of
the field book is 20 cm x 12 cm and it opens lengthwise.
• Field books may be of two types:
1. Single –line , and 2. Double-line.

1. Single-line field book

• In this type of field book, a single red line is drawn through the middle of each page.
• This line represents the chain line, and the chainages are written on it.

• The offsets are recorded, with sketches, to the left or right of the chain line.
The recording of the field book is started from the last page and continued towards the
first page.
• The main stations are marked by triangle and subsidiary stations or tie stations are by a
circle or oval round
2. Double-line field book

• In this type of field book, two red lines, 1.5 cm apart, are
drawn through the middle of each page.
• This column represents the chain line, and the chainages are written in
it. The offsets are recorded, with sketches, to the left or right of
this column.
• The recording is begun from the last page and continued towards the
first. The main stations are marked by triangle and subsidiary stations
or tie stations are by a circle or oval round.
• This type of field book is commonly used.
Field book – chain
surveying
 Procedure in chain surveying

• Reconnaissance
• Selection of Stations
• Station Marking
• Running survey lines
• Offsetting
 Reconnaissance: The preliminary inspection of the area to be surveyed is called
reconnaissance. The surveyor inspects the area to be surveyed, surveyor prepares index
sketch or key plan.
 Marking Station: The surveyor fixes up the required [Link] stations at places from where
maximum possible stations are possible.

 Some of the methods used for marking are: Fixing ranging poles ,Driving pegs, Marking a
cross if the ground is hard, Digging and fixing a stone.

 Then he selects the way for passing the mainline, which should be horizontal and

clean as possible and should pass approximately through the center of work.

 Then ranging rods are fixed on the stations.

 After fixing the stations, chaining could be started.

 Make ranging wherever necessary.

 Measure the chainage and offset. And Enter in the field the book.
 Ranging
• While measuring the survey lines, the length of the chain lines may
be greater than one chain length. Therefore intermediate points
are required to be established.
• The process of establishing intermediate points on a straight line
between two end points is known as ranging

• The purpose of ranging 1) obstruction

-
2) distance greater than chain length
 Types of ranging

1. Direct ranging 2. Indirect ranging

2. Direct ranging:
– Is done when two ends of the survey lines are
intervisible.
– When ranging rods are placed on intermediate
points along the chain line by direct observation
from either end stations, the process is known as
direct ranging.
– Can be done by eye or through some optical
instrument such as line ranger or theodolite.
2. Indirect ranging (Reciprocal ranging):

– Is adopted when both the ends of the survey

line are not intervisible due to high intervening
ground or due to long distance between them.
Advantages of Chain Surveying

 Chain survey is simplest and commonest method used in surveying

 The equipment used to conduct chain survey are simple to use,

 The equipment used in chain survey can easily be replaced. For example

measuring rods can be replaced with measuring tape.

 This method does not involve complicated mathematical calculation.

 In chain survey few people are needed to conduct the survey. Normally chain

survey team has three people Booker, leader and follower.

 Disadvantages of Chain Surveying

 Simple chain survey cannot be conducted in built up areas and large areas.

 Simple chain survey is subject to several chances of errors of accumulation

which may cause by problem of chain

 It is time consuming

 It may not be conducted in areas with steep slopes or water logged areas.

 Chain survey becomes more complicated method when there are raised points

(obstacles) in between areas to be surveyed