COURSE: Introduction to Electrical

and Computer Engineering

Lecture Note
2023

Class: Year One/ Hundred Level

Course Lecturer: Engr. Dr. Henry Ohize

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering,
CONFLUENCE UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY,
LOKOJA, KOGI STATE.

1
 Short Course Catalog Description

• Textbook & Materials:

1. Introduction to Electrical Engineering by
Mulukutla S. Sarma

Electrical & Electronics Engineering, FUT Minna

2
Course Objective:
1. Introduce students to Electrical Engineering.
2. Provide students with the basic insight useful for
understanding advance subjects in Electrical and
Engineering
Learning Outcomes:
3. Ability to apply circuit theorems in analysing simple
electrical network.
2. An ability to understand and utilize the basic governing
equations in Electrical and Computer Engineering.
3. An ability to relate physical phenomenon to Electrical
Engineering.

Electrical & Electronics Engineering, FUT Minna

3
 What Is Electrical and Computer
Engineering?
• Electrical and Computer Engineering involves
the application of science and technology to
create and invent solutions. It involves
applying knowledge of signals, circuits,
physics, and systems to develop technologies
to improve people's lives

Electrical & Electronics Engin 4

 What is Computer Engineering

• Computer Engineering uses principles from

Computer Science and Electrical Engineering
to create hardware (physical components) and
firmware which are used in a wide range of
areas: consumer electronics, medical devices,
communication systems, aircraft, self-driving
cars, etc.

Electrical & Electronics Engin 5

 What is CE continued

• Computer Engineering students learn how to

develop, prototype, and test microchips,
circuits, processors, conductors and any other
component used in computer devices or
systems (e.g. supercomputers, smartphones,
laptops, servers, IoT gadgets). They also
develop firmware, an essential type of
software that allows operating systems and
applications to take full advantage of the
hardware. Electrical & Electronics Engin 6
 What Do Electrical Engineers Do?

• Develop the technologies which allow

people to communicate with each
other and access information from
wherever and whenever
Collaborations with: CS, Math

Electrical & Electronics Engin 7

 What Do Electrical and Computer
Engineers Do?
• Develop the technologies which will
enable us to generate and distribute
power from renewable resources and
become energy independent.
Collaborations with: MechE
• Develop the technologies for
affordable, clean, efficient solar
power generation
Collaborations with: Material Science
Electrical & Electronics Engin 8
 What Do Electrical Engineers Do?
• Develop new technologies that make
sensors smaller, better, and make
systems more reliable and energy
efficient
Collaborations with: Many field of
studies
• Develop the technologies to improve
medical care: Advances in
biosensors, prosthetics, and imaging
Collaborations with: Bioengineering,
9
 Overview of EECE

• The life of an Electrical and Computer

Engineer revolves around the following
Design of complex system as seen in embedded
systems, microcontrollers etc
Modeling and controlling physical systems as seen
in sensors
Augmenting physical systems with computation as
seen in signal processing DSPs
Building systems that are robust to uncertainty

Electrical & Electronics Engin 10

 What EC Engineers do?
• In addition to general EC Engineering, some
specialisations or subdisciplines include:
• Hardware Systems
• Distributed Computing
• Robotics and Cybernetics
• Embedded Systems
• Computer Graphics and Visualisation
• Medical Image Computing
• Computer and Network Security
• Telecommunications
• Power Systems
• Renewable Energy

Electrical & Electronics Engin 11

Overview of the course Introduction
to ECE
This course introduces the students to Electrical and
Computer Engineering and as such the topics we shall
cover are organized into broad groups as listed
 Circuit and Circuit Theorems
 Signals and Systems
 Software Engineering or programming
Welcome to the first year, you shall only be introduced
to the topics above and will not delve into details here

Electrical &Electronics Engin 12

 Chapter 1. Circuit and Circuit Theorems
Electrical engineering is concerned with the analysis
and design of electric circuits, systems, and devices. In
this chapter, we shall deal with the fundamental
concepts that underlie all circuits.
Definition of Circuit:
Electric circuits are collections of circuit elements
connected together, which are the most fundamental
structures of electrical engineering. A circuit is an
interconnection of simple electrical devices that have at
least one closed path in which current may flow.

13
 Circuit and Circuit Theorems
Circuits are important in electrical engineering because
they process electrical signals,
The electrical signal carry energy and information; a
signal can be any time varying electrical quantity.
Engineering circuit analysis is a mathematical study of
some useful interconnection of simple electrical devices.
An electric circuit is an idealized mathematical model of
some physical circuit or phenomenon.

14
 Circuit and Circuit Theorems
The ideal circuit elements are
• the resistor,
• the inductor,
• the capacitor, and
• the voltage and current sources.
The ideal circuit model helps us to predict,
mathematically, the approximate behavior of the actual
event. The models also provide insights into how to
design a physical electric circuit to perform a desired
task.
15
 Circuits

• Electrical Quantities
• Lumped-Circuit Elements
• Meters and measurements
• Kirchhoff’s laws
• Circuit theorems (We defer this to higher
level)

16
 Electrical Quantities

In order to appreciate electrical circuits, we

must know and get familiar with electrical
quantities, which are
1. Charge
2. Current
3. Voltage

17
Charge
• Electric charge is the basic physical property of
matter that causes it to experience a force when kept
in an electric or magnetic field.
• An electric charge is associated with an electric field,
and the moving electric charge generates a magnetic
field.
• A combination of electric and magnetic fields is
known as the electromagnetic field.
• Interaction of the charges generates an
electromagnetic force which is the foundation of
Electrical Engineering
Is Electric Charge a Vector Quantity?
Electrical & Electronics Engin 18
Charge
• Electric charge unit is measured in Coloumb ( C ).
One coulomb is the quantity of charge Q transferred in one second. Mathematically written as
Q is the electric charge, I is the electric current and t is the time
• Q are of two categories: we have the
– Proton or positive charge with charge quantity equal to +1.602 *
– Electron or negative charge with charge quantity equal to -1.602 *
When many charged particles are
collected together, larger charges and charge distributions occur. There
may be
1. point charges (C):
2. line charges (),
3. surface charge distributions () and
4. volume charge distributions ().

19
Electric Field Intensity
• A charge is responsible for an electric field and charges
exert forces on each other. In fact it is established that like
charges repel, whereas unlike charges attract. The
relationship between charge and force is defined by
Columb’s law
The magnitude of the electrostatic force of attraction or repulsion between
two point charges is directly proportional to the product of the magnitudes
of charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them.

where Q1 and Q2 are the point charges (C); R is the separation in meters (m) between them;
is the permittivity of the free-space medium with units of or, more commonly, farads
per meter (F/m);
See page 5 of the reference material for worked examples

20
Conductors, Semi conductors and Insulators
• Materials through which charge flows readily are called conductors.
Examples include most metals, such as silver, gold, copper, and aluminum.
Copper is used extensively for the conductive paths on electric circuit
boards and for the fabrication of electrical wires. A conductor has a very
low resistance to the flow of charge.

• Insulators are materials that do not allow charge to move easily. Examples
include glass, plastic, ceramics, and rubber. One sees insulating (or
dielectric) materials often wrapped around the center conducting core of
a wire. an insulator has a very high resistance to the flow of charge.

• Charge-conducting abilities of various materials vary in a wide range.

Semiconductors fall in the middle between conductors and insulators, and
have a moderate resistance to the flow of charge. Examples include
silicon, germanium, and gallium arsenide.

21
Fundamental Electrical Concepts

Charge, Current, Voltage,

Power and Energy
 Electric Charge (Q)

• Characteristic of subatomic particles that

determines their electromagnetic interactions

• An electron has a -1.602*10-19 Coulomb charge

• The rate of flow of charged particles is called

current
 Current (I)

• Current = (Number of electrons that pass in

one second) ∙ (charge/electron)
 -1 ampere = (6.242∙1018 e/sec) ∙(-1.602 10-19Coulomb/e)
 Notice that an ampere = Coulomb/second
• The negative sign indicates that the current inside is
actually flowing in the opposite direction of the
electron flow
Electrons

Current
 Current (I)

• A sustained flow of electric charge past a

point is called an electric current.
• Specifically, electric current is the rate that
electric charge passes a point, so
Charge
Current = or I = q/t
time

1 Ampere = 1 Coulomb/sec
 Current

• i = dq/dt – the derivitive or slope of the charge

when plotted against time in seconds
• Q = ∫ i ∙ dt – the integral or area under the
current when plotted against time in seconds
Current
amps
4
3
Q delivered in 0-5 sec= 12.5 Coulombs
2
1

5 sec
 AC and DC Current
•DC Current has a constant value

•AC Current has a value that changes sinusoidally

Notice that AC current

changes in value and
direction

No net charge is

transferred
Direct Current
Alternating Current
 Why Does Current Flow?

• A voltage source provides the energy (or

work) required to produce a current
Volts = joules/Coulomb = dW/dQ
• A source takes charged particles (usually
electrons) and raises their potential so they
flow out of one terminal into and through a
transducer (light bulb or motor) on their way
back to the source’s other terminal
 Voltage
• Voltage is a measure of the potential energy that
causes a current to flow through a transducer in a
circuit
• Voltage is always measured as a difference with
respect to an arbitrary common point called ground
• Voltage is also known as electromotive force or
EMF outside engineering
• An old-fashioned term for electric potential or
voltage is “electromotive force” or “emf”.
Potential Difference
 Voltage Source

• A battery or electrical outlet is a source of

electric potential or voltage - not charge.
• The electrons that move in a conductor are
supplied by the conductor - not the
voltage source.
• The net charge on a current-carrying
conductor is zero.
 A Circuit
• Current flows from the higher voltage terminal of the source
into the higher voltage terminal of the transducer before
returning to the source
I

+ Transducer - The source expends

Voltage energy & the transducer
+ converts it into
Source
something useful
Voltage I

-
 Passive Devices

• A passive transducer device functions only

when energized by a source in a circuit
Passive devices can be modeled by a resistance
• Passive devices always draw current so that
the highest voltage is present on the terminal
where the current enters the passive device
+ V>0 -  Notice that the voltage is
measured across the device
 Current is measured
I>0
through the device
 Active Devices

• Sources expend energy and are considered

active devices
• Their current normally flows out of their
highest voltage terminal
• Sometimes, when there are multiple sources
in a circuit, one overpowers another, forcing
the other to behave in a passive manner
 Types of Electronic component

PASSIVE ACTIVE
(Do not generate or control (Control Voltage) Those
current) They do not have gain that have gain or
or directionality directionality
Examples Examples

Resistors Transistors

Capacitors Diodes

Inductors Integrated circuit

 Power

• The rate at which energy is transferred from

an active source or used by a passive device
• P in watts = dW/dt = joules/second
• P= V∙I = dW/dQ ∙ dQ/dt = volts ∙ amps =
watts
• W = ∫ P ∙ dt – so the energy (work in joules) is
equal to the area under the power in watts
plotted against time in seconds
Electric Power
Energy
 Basic Circuit Elements:

• Identification, Functions and Properties

Generally two groups
1. Active elements - delivers more energy to the
circuit than what the circuit supplies to it.
2. Passive elements - cannot deliver more
energy to the circuit than what is supplied to
it by the circuit.
Basic Circuit Elements (2)
Resistors
The flow of electric current is subject to friction.
This friction, or opposition, is called resistance R
and is the property of a conductor that limits
current.
A resistor impedes the flow of electricity through a
circuit.
 Resistors have a set value.
 A Resistor always absorbs power and is measured in
Watt (w)
Color code
Tolerance: Gold =
within 5%
Black: 0
Brown: 1
Red: 2
Orange: 3
Yellow:4
Green: 5
Blue:6
Violet:7
Gray:8
White: 9
Units
Knowing your units is important!
Kilo and Mega are common in resistors
Milli, micro, nano and pico can be used
in other
components

K (kilo) = 1,000
M (mega) =
1,000,000
M (milli) =
1/1,000
u (micro) =
1/1,000,000
 Types of resistors

A Typical Resistor
High-Power Fixed Type &
Adjustable Type Wire Wound

Film Resistor

Wirewound Resistor Carbon

Resistor
Resistors in circuit
 Resistor color codes
Because carbon resistors are small,
they are color coded to mark their
resistance (R) value in ohms.

Bad Boys Ring Our Young Girls But Vicky Gives Willingly
Tolerance

The tolerance of a resistor is the maximum

difference between its actual value and the
required value and is generally expressed as a
plus or minus percentage value.
 For example
A 1kΩ ± 20% tolerance resistor may have a
maximum and minimum value of:

Maximum Resistance Value

1kΩ or 1000Ω + 20% = 1,200Ω's

Minimum Resistance Value

1kΩ or 1000Ω - 20% = 800Ω's

Then a 1kΩ ±20% tolerance resistor may have a

maximum value of 1200Ω's and a minimum value
of 800Ω's resulting in a span of some 400Ω's!!.
 Resistor color codes conts.
Start reading color codes from Left to Right with
the larger width tolerance band oriented to the
right side indicating its tolerance.
The Standard Resistor
Color Code Chart.
Example

Yellow, Violet, Red, Silver

= 4, 7, 2 = 4 7 x 102 = 4700Ω or 4k7 10%.

What is the value of the following resistor and the

tolerance?

Red, Violet, Gold, Gold

Answer: 2.7Ω  5%
Example
What is the value of the following resistor and
the tolerance?

Answer: 2700Ω or 2.7kΩ  0.25%

Exercise
Fill in the colour codes for the following resistors:

First Second Third Fourth

Resistor
colour colour colour colour
3,9MΩ  2%

680Ω 1%

0,47Ω 10%

66 Ω 5%

8,2k Ω 5%
Answer
First Second Third Fourth
Resistor
colour colour colour colour
3,9MΩ 2% Orange White Green Red

680Ω 1% Blue Grey Brown Brown

0,47 Ω 10% Yellow Violet Silver Silver

66 Ω 5% Blue Blue Black Gold

8,2k Ω 5% Grey Red Red Gold

 Examples

Resistor Tolerance 1st band 2nd band 3rd band 4th band 5th band
3M65 Ω ± 5%

12k5 Ω ± 0, 1%
28k7 Ω ± 1%

9k31 Ω ± 2%

60.4 Ω ± 0, 5%
 Answer

Resistor Tolerance 1st band 2nd band 3rd band 4th band 5th band
3M65 Ω ± 5% Orange Blue Green Yellow Gold

12k5 Ω ± 0, 1% Brown Red Green Red Violet

28k7 Ω ± 1% Red Grey Violet Red Brown

9k31 Ω ± 2% White Orange Brown Brown Red

60.4 Ω ± 0, 5% Blue Black Yellow Gold Green

 Preferred resistor values: E12, etc.
Because it is not possible to stock all possible
values of resistances in a shop or component
store, preferred values have been chosen to
represent a usable spectrum of values.

Depending on the accuracy required, resistances

are available in 12 values for every decade
(between 1 and 10, 10 and 100, 100 and 1000 etc.)
called the E12 series, 24 values for every decade,
called the E24 series, and 48, 96 etc.
 E12, etc conts

The E12 series would cover any possible

value of resistance, if the resistors have a
tolerance of 10%, the E24 series 5%, and
the E96 series 1%, etc. The E12 resistor
series must be memorised.

E12 10 12 15 18 22 27 33 39 47 56 68 82
 Examples
Fill in the closest E12 preferred resistor values
for the following:

19847Ω

20348 Ω

148223Ω

9.0356 Ω

61 Ω
Answers
 Resistor colour coding and
ohmic values

• Colour Significant Multiplier Tolerance

Figures
Silver – 10−2 ±10%
Gold – 10−1 ±5%
Black 01 –
Brown 1 10 ±1%
Red 2 102 ±2%
Orange 3 103 –
Yellow 4 104 –
Green 5 105 ±0.5%
Blue 6 10 6
±0.25%
Violet 7 10 7
±0.1%
Grey 8 10 8
–
White 9 10 9
–
None – – ±20%
(i) For a four-band
 Letter and digit code for resistors
• Resistance Marked as:
Value
0.47 Ω R47
1Ω 1R0
4.7 Ω 4R7
47 Ω 47R
100 Ω 100R
1kΩ 1K0
10 k Ω 10 K
10 M Ω 10 M

• Tolerance is indicated as follows: F = ±1%,

G = ±2%, J = ±5%, K = ±10% and M = ±20%
Thus, for example;
R33M = 0.33 Ω ± 20%

• [Link] (Resistor Colour Code)

• [Link] (E-
12 Resistors)
• [Link] (Chips Resistors)
 Capacitors
A capacitor stores electrical energy.
 This pool of electrons is available for electronic
components to use.
Capacitance is measured in Farads (F). The small capacitors
usually used in
electronics are often measured in microfarads and
nanofarads.

Some capacitors are polarized. Note the

different length terminals on one of the
capacitors.
 Polarity of capacitors
The shorter terminal
goes on the negative
side.
The stripe is on the
negative terminal
side of the
capacitor.

The board is
marked for positive
or negative.
 Applications of capacitors
Capacitors supply a pool of electrons for
immediate use.
 If a component needs an immediate supply of
electrons, the
capacitor can supply those electrons.

Capacitors can smooth out a signal – eliminate

the ripples
or spikes in DC voltage.
 The capacitor can absorb the peaks and
fill in the valleys of a rippled signal.
 Inductors
An inductor is a passive element designed to store
energy in its magnetic field.
 An inductor consists of a coil of conducting wire.

Inductance is the property whereby an inductor exhibits opposition

to the change of current flowing through it, measured in henrys (H).
 Inductor Symbol and Types
Inductor types

Solenoidal Wound Toroidal

Wound Chip Wound

Inductor electrical
symbols

Air-core (normal iron-core Variable

inductor iron-core
 Applications of Inductors
o Inductors find numerous applications in
electronic and
power systems.

o They are used in power supplies,

transformers, radios,
TVs, radars, and electric motors.
Diode
A diode is a one way valve (or gate) for electricity.
It is a component with an asymmetrical
transfer characteristic. A
diode has low (ideally zero) resistance in one
direction, and high (ideally infinite) resistance in
the other direction.

 Diodes will protect your

electronics.
 Diode circuit protection
In a DPDT switch, if polarity is wrong, the
motor will run backwards.
In an electronic circuit, if the polarity is wrong,
you can fry your components.
A diode in your system will help to prevent
problems.

Diodes have a
bar on the
cathode
(negative)
side.
 Light emitting diode (LED)
A light emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor
light source. When electricity is passing through
the diode, it emits light.

Jeremy is going to talk a lot more

about LEDs.
 Variable resistor / Potentiometer
A potentiometer is a variable resistor. As you
manually
turn a dial, the resistance changes.
 How a variable resistor works
As the dial/wiper turns, electricity must go
through
more or less of the resistive strip.

In series, the change in resistance means a change in

voltage.

So as you turn

the dial/wiper,
you get a
change in
voltage.
Transistors
A transistor is a semiconductor device used
to amplify
and switch electronic signals and electrical
power.

This is our electronic

switch!
 How a transistor works
A voltage or current applied to one pair of
the
transistor’s terminals changes the current
through
another pair of terminals.
A transistor is composed of semiconductor
material with at least three terminals
for connection to an
external circuit.
Transistors have 3 pins.
For these transistors:
Collect
or
Terminology
BJT versus FET
Bipolar junction Useful as
transistor. amplifiers.
Collector, Emitter,
Field-effect Base
transistor.
Useful as motor
Source, Drain, Gate drivers.
MOSFET: Metal-oxide-
semiconductor FET
NPN (N-channel FET) versus PNP (P-channel
FET)
NPN versus PNP is how the semiconductors
are
PNlayered.
Pointing in
P:
NPN: permanently
Not pointing in
Schematic symbols

BJT BJT
PNP NPN

P-channel N-channel
FET FET
 Integrated circuit
An integrated circuit (IC) is a set of
transistors that is
the controller or ‘brain’ of an electronic
circuit.
An input is received, an output is sent out.

Modern microprocessor ICs can have

billions of
transistors per square inch!
 What an IC can do for us?
Billions of electronically controlled on/off
switches (transistors) is how the
microprocessor in a digital computer
‘thinks’ and functions.
 A computer has a wide range of tasks to
perform.

But other ICs can complete simpler,

discrete jobs. For example, an IC can take a
voltage input and output commands to a
motor.
 IC Terminology: Op-amp
An operational amplifier (op-amp) is a set of
transistors inside the integrated circuit.
They often are the components doing the
mathematical operations.
 Ohm’s Law
• Ohm’s law states that the voltage V
across a resistor is directly
proportional to the current I flowing
through the resistor.
• Introducing the constant of proportionality, the
resistance.

• V=IxR
• I =V/R
• R=V/I
 Conductance is the ability of an element to conduct electric current; it is measured in mhos ( ) or siemens (S).

Ohm’s Law(2)
• The voltage across a resistor is proportional to
the current through the resistor and is measure in
Ohm (Ω)

Conductance (G = 1/R ) is the ability of an

element to conduct electric current; it is
measured in mhos ( ) or siemens (S)

• The sign of the voltage drop across resistor

is determined by the direction of current:
Positive entering, Negative exiting.
 Definition / Units

• Potential difference is measured in Volts [V]

• Current is measured in Amperes [A]
• Resistance is measured in Ohms [Ω]

• Volt = Ampere x Ohm

• 1 Volt = 1 Ampere x 1 Ohm

• 5 Volt = 5 Ampere x 1 Ohm
 Example 1

• What is the resistance of a resistor that has a

voltage drop of 100 V and a current through it
of 1 A?

• R = V/I
• R = 100 V / 1 A
• R = 100 Ω
 Example 2

• What is the resistance of a resistor that has a

voltage drop of 12 V and a current through it
of 100 mA?

• R = V/I
• R = 12 V / 100 mA
• R = 12 V / 0,1 A
• R = 120 Ω
 Example 3

• What is the voltage that develops over a

resistor of 550 Ω that has a current of 2,5A
flowing through it?

• V = IxR
• V = 2,5 A x 550 Ω
• V = 1375 V
• V = 1,38 kV
 Example 4

• What current is flowing through a 10 kΩ

resistor with a voltage of 5V over it?

• I = V / R
• I = 5 V / 10kΩ
• I = 5 V / 10 000Ω
• I = 0,0005 A
• I = 0,5 mA or 500 µA
 Exercise

• Complete the table:

V I R

9V 0,5A
5V 10kΩ
1mA 1kΩ
500µV 220Ω
3V 560µA
15000mV 3,3MΩ
6,6V 3300µA
Table of scales
Table of scales
 Examples

• 27000 V = 27kV
• 560 A = 0,56kA
• 0,3 A = 300mA
• 5 000 000 Ω = 5M Ω
• 0,0007 V = 700µV
 Class Work

1. 0,04 A = _ mA
2. 500 000 Ω = _ kΩ
3. 500 000 Ω = _ MΩ
4. 0,0003 V = _ µV
5. 3,14 x 10^7 = _ MΩ
 Answers

1. 40 mA
2. 500 kΩ
3. 0,5 MΩ
4. 300 µV
5. 31,4 MΩ
Multiples and sub-multiples
 Electric Power and Energy
• Electrical power P in an electrical circuit is given by the
product of potential difference V and current I. (P= VI,
P= I2R, P = V2/R)
• Electrical energy = power × time (watt-seconds or
joules; or kilowatt-hours,) often called the ‘unit of
electricity’. The ‘electricity meter’ in the
home records the number of kilowatt-hours used and is
thus an energy meter.
 Main effects of electric current

(a)magnetic effect
(b) chemical effect
(c) heating effect

Assignment 1
1. List ten applications each of the three main
effects of electric current.
2. What are electric fuses and how are they
rated?.
 Resistance and Resistivity
The resistance of an electrical conductor depends on the
(a) Length of the conductor,
(b) Cross-sectional area of the conductor,
(c) Type of material and
(d) Temperature of the material.

The constant of proportionality is known as the resistivity of

the material and is given the symbol ρ (Greek rho).
Thus;
R = ρl/a Ohms.
• What happens to the resistance of a
material when its temperature
increases?
 temperature coefficient of resistance

• The temperature coefficient of resistance of a

material is the increase in the resistance of a 1 Ω
resistor of that material when it is subjected to a
rise of temperature of 1◦C.
• The symbol used for the temperature
coefficient of resistance is α (Greek alpha).
• How do you determine the resistance of a
material at a given temperature?
 Open and Short Circuit

• A short circuit is a
circuit element with
resistance
approaching zero.
• An open circuit is a
circuit element with
resistance
approaching infinity.
 Nodes, Branches and Loops

• A branch represents a
single element such as a
voltage source or a
resistor.
• A node is the point of
connection between
two or more branches.
• A loop is any closed
path in a circuit.
 Series and Parallel

• Two or more elements are in series if they

exclusively share a single node and
consequently carry the same current.
• Two or more elements are in parallel if they
are connected to the same two nodes and
consequently have the same voltage across
them.
 Network Analysis

Solving for all voltages and currents in the network

elements. Two approaches
• 1. Direct methods; determine the different
voltages and current in its original form; Kirchhoff's
laws, loop analysis, Nodal analysis, superposition
etc
• 2. Network reduction method; for complicated
circuits, original network is converted into more
simpler equivalent circuits and solved using
Norton’s theorem, Thevenins theorems etc
Kirchhoff’s Laws

• Born 12 March 1812 in

Konigsberg, Prussia.
• Died 17 October 1887 in
Berlin
• German physicist
contributed to electrical
circuits
 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)

• The sum of currents entering a node equals

the sum of currents leaving the node.
• The algebraic sum of all currents at any node
in a circuit equals zero.
 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

• The algebraic sum of all the voltages around

any closed path in a circuit equals zero
• The sum of voltage rise around a loop equals
the sum of drop around the same loop
 Series circuits

In a series circuit

(a) the current I is the same in all parts of the circuit

(b) the sum of the voltages V1, V2 and V3 is equal to the total applied
voltage, V,
 Potential Divider

• A potential divider is the simplest way of producing a source of

lower e.m.f. from a source of higher e.m.f.
 Parallel Networks
In a parallel circuit:
(a) the sum of the currents is equal to
the total circuit current,
i.e I = I1 + I2 + I3
(b) the source p.d., V volts, is the
same across each of the resistors.
 Series Resistors and Voltage Division

• Resistors in series behave as

a single resistor whose
resistance is equal to the
sum of the resistances of
the individual resistors.
• The equivalent resistance of
any number of resistors
connected in series is the
sum of the individual
resistances.
 Series Resistors and Voltage Division

• The source voltage v is

divided among the
resistors in direct
proportion to their
resistances; the larger the
resistance, the larger the
voltage drop.
• This is called the principle
of voltage division
 Parallel Resistors and Current Division

• The equivalent resistance of

two parallel resistors is equal
to the product of their
resistances divided by their
sum.
• Conductances in parallel
behave as a single
conductance whose value is
equal to the sum of the
individual conductances.
 Parallel Resistors and Current Division
• The total current i is shared by the resistors in
inverse proportion to their resistances.
• This is known as the principle of current division
• Notice that the larger current flows through the
smaller resistance.
Introduction to Embedded Systems

Electrical & Electronics Engin 125

 Sensors and
Actuators
Sensor:-
A sensor is a transducer device that converts energy
from one form to another for any measurement or control
purpose.

Actuator:-
Actuator is a form of transducer
device which converts signals to
corresponding physical action(motion).
Actuator act as output device
126
 Core of the Embedded
EmbeddedSystems:-
systems are domain and application
specific and are built around a central core. The core
of the embedded system falls into any one of the
following categories.

1. General Purpose and Domain Specific Processors

1. Microprocessors
2. Microcontrollers
3. Digital Signal Processors
2. Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs)
3. Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs)
127
1. General Purpose and Domain Specific Processors
1. Microprocessors
2. Microcontrollers
3. Digital Signal Processors

 Almost 80% of Embedded systems are

processor/Controller based. The processor may be a
Microprocessor or a Micro- controller or a Digital
signal Processor depending on domain and
application.
 Most of the embedded system in the industrial control
and monitoring applications make use of the
commonly available microprocessors or
microcontrollers.
 where as domains which require signal processing
such as speech coding, speech reorganization, etc.
make use of Digital signal processors supplied by
128