Module 2

Unit 1 : Matrices

Dr. Samrat Roy_

 Matrices - Introduction
• Reduces complicated systems of equations to simple
expressions
• Adaptable to systematic method of mathematical treatment
and well suited to computers
 1 6 8
Definition:
 1  3  
2 2 4
 4 0 by two brackets 
A matrix is a set or group of numbers arranged in a square or

rectangular array enclosed
  3 0  4
4 2
 
a b
   
1  1   3 0 c 
d
Dr. Samrat Roy_   
 Matrices - Introduction
Properties:
• A specified number of rows and a specified number of
columns
• Two numbers (rows x columns) describe the dimensions
or size of the matrix.

Examples:
3x3 matrix  1 2 4
2x4 matrix
 4  1 5  1 1
  
3  3
 1  1
1x2 matrix  3 3 3  0 0 3 2 

Dr. Samrat Roy_

 Matrices - Introduction
A matrix is denoted by a bold capital letter and the elements
within the matrix are denoted by lower case letters
e.g. matrix [A] with elements aij

Amxn=
 a11 a12 ... aij ain 
a a22 ... aij 
a2 n 
m An
 21
    
 
 am1 am 2 aij amn 
i goes from 1 to m
j goes
_ from 1 to n
Matrices - Introduction
TYPES OF MATRICES

 1
1. Column matrix or vector:
The number of rows may be any integer but the number of
columns is always 1

 1
  2  1
 a11 
 a21 

 
 4
    3  
 2    
 am1 

Dr. Samrat Roy_

Matrices - Introduction
TYPES OF MATRICES

2. Row matrix or vector

Any number of columns but only one row

1 1 6 0 3 5 2

a11 a12 a13  a1n 

Dr. Samrat Roy_

 Matrices - Introduction
TYPES OF MATRICES

3. Rectangular matrix
Contains more than one element and number of rows is not
equal to the number of columns

1 1 
3 7   1 1 1 0 0
   2 0 3 3 0
 7  7  
 
7 6 
m n
Dr. Samrat Roy_
 Matrices - Introduction
TYPES OF MATRICES
4. Square matrix
The number of rows is equal to the number of columns
(a square matrix A has an order of m)
mxm

 1 1  1 1 1
 9 9 0
 3 0  
   6 6 1
The principal or main diagonal of a square matrix is composed of all
elements aij for which i=j
Dr. Samrat Roy_
 Matrices - Introduction
TYPES OF MATRICES

5. Diagonal matrix
A square matrix where all the elements are zero except those on
the main diagonal
3 0 0 0
 1 0 0 0 3 0 
0
 0 2 0 
  0 0 5 0
 0 0 1  
0 0 0 9
i.e. aij =0 for all i = j
aij = [Link] some
Samrat Roy_ or all i = j
 Matrices - Introduction
TYPES OF MATRICES

6. Unit or Identity matrix - I

A diagonal matrix with ones on the main diagonal

1 0 0 0
0 
 1 0 0  1 0  aij 0
0 0 1 0  0 1 0 
   aij 
 
0 0 0 1
i.e. aij =0 for all i = j
Dr. Samrat Roy_
aij = 1 for some or all i = j
 Matrices - Introduction
TYPES OF MATRICES

7. Null (zero) matrix - 0

All elements in the matrix are zero

 0  0 0 0
 0  0 0 0
 
 0  
 0 0 0

aij 0
Dr. Samrat Roy_
For all i,j
 Matrices - Introduction
TYPES OF MATRICES

8. Triangular matrix
A square matrix whose elements above or below the main
diagonal are all zero

 1 0 0  1 0 0  1 8 9
 2 1 0  2 1 0  0 1 6
     
 5 2 3  5 2 3  0 0 3

Dr. Samrat Roy_

 Matrices - Introduction
TYPES OF MATRICES

8a. Upper triangular matrix

A square matrix whose elements below the main
diagonal are all zero
1 7 4 4
 aij aij aij   1 8 7 0 
   0 1 8  1 7 4
0 aij aij 
  0
0 0 7 8
 0 aij   0 0 3  
0 0 0 3
i.e. aij = 0 for all i > j
Dr. Samrat Roy_
 Matrices - Introduction
TYPES OF MATRICES

8b. Lower triangular matrix

A square matrix whose elements above the main diagonal are all
zero

 aij 0 0  1 0 0
   2 1 0
 aij aij 0
 
 aij aij aij   5 2 3

i.e. aij = 0 for all i < j
Dr. Samrat Roy_
 Matrices – Introduction
TYPES OF MATRICES
9. Scalar matrix
A diagonal matrix whose main diagonal elements are
equal to the same scalar
A scalar is defined as a single number or constant

 aij 0 0  1 0 0 6 0 0 0
   0 1 0 0 
0 aij 0    6 0 0
0 0 aij   0 0 1
 0 0 6 0
 
i.e. aij = 0 for all i = j 0 0 0 6
aij = [Link] allRoy_
Samrat i=j
 Matrices

Matrix Operations

Dr. Samrat Roy_

 Matrices - Operations

EQUALITY OF MATRICES
Two matrices are said to be equal only when all
corresponding elements are equal
Therefore their size or dimensions are equal as well

 1 0 0  1 0 0
A=  2 1 0 B=  2 1 0 A=B
   
 5 2 3  5 2 3
Dr. Samrat Roy_
 Matrices - Operations
Some properties of equality:
• IIf A = B, then B = A for all A and B
• IIf A = B, and B = C, then A = C for all A, B and C

 1 0 0  b11 b12 b13 

A=  2 1 0 B=
b b b23 
   21 22

 5 2 3  b31 b32 b33 

If A = B then aij bij

Dr. Samrat Roy_
 Matrices - Operations
ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF MATRICES

The sum or difference of two matrices, A and B of the same

size yields a matrix C of the same size

cij aij  bij

Matrices of different dimensions cannot be added or
subtracted

Dr. Samrat Roy_

 Matrices - Operations
Commutative Law:
A+B=B+A

Associative Law:
A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C = A + B + C

 7 3  1  1 5 6  8 8 5
 2  5 6     4  2 3    2  7 9 
     
A B C
2x3 2x3 2x3

Dr. Samrat Roy_

 Matrices - Operations

A+0=0+A=A

A + (-A) = 0 (where –A is the matrix composed of –aij as elements)

Dr. Samrat Roy_

 Matrices - Operations
SCALAR MULTIPLICATION OF MATRICES

Matrices can be multiplied by a scalar (constant or single

element)
Let k be a scalar quantity; then
kA = Ak

 3  1
Ex. If k=4 and
2 1 
A  
 2  3
 
4 1 
Dr. Samrat Roy_
Matrices - Operations
 3  1  3  1 12  4 
2 1  2 1  8 4 
4     4  
 2  3  2  3  8  12
     
4 1  4 1  16 4 

Properties:
• k (A + B) = kA + kB
• (k + g)A = kA + gA
• k(AB) = (kA)B = A(k)B
• k(gA) = (kg)A
Dr. Samrat Roy_
 Matrices - Operations
MULTIPLICATION OF MATRICES

The product of two matrices is another matrix

Two matrices A and B must be conformable for multiplication to
be possible
i.e. the number of columns of A must equal the number of rows
of B
Example.
A x B = C
(1x3) (3x1) (1x1)

Dr. Samrat Roy_

Matrices - Operations
B x A = Not possible!
(2x1) (4x2)

A x B = Not possible!
(6x2) (6x3)

Example
A x B = C
(2x3) (3x2) (2x2)

Dr. Samrat Roy_

Matrices - Operations
 b11 b12 
 a11 a12 a13     c11 c12 
a   b21 b22    
 21 a22 a23   c21 c22 
 b31 b32 

(a11 b11 )  (a12 b21 )  (a13 b31 ) c11

(a11 b12 )  (a12 b22 )  (a13 b32 ) c12
(a21 b11 )  (a22 b21 )  (a23 b31 ) c21
(a21 b12 )  (a22 b22 )  (a23 b32 ) c22

Successive multiplication of row i of A with column j of

B Dr.
– Samrat
row by
Roy_
column multiplication
 Matrices - Operations
 4 8
 1 2 3    (14)  (2 6)  (3 5) (18)  (2 2)  (3 3) 
 4 2 7   6 2  (4 4)  (2 6)  (7 5) (4 8)  (2 2)  (7 3)
   5 3  
 

 31 21
 
 63 57 

Remember also:
IA = A

 1 0  31 21  31 21
 0 1  63 57  

Dr. Samrat Roy_     63 57 
 Matrices - Operations
Assuming that matrices A, B and C are conformable for
the operations indicated, the following are true:
1. AI = IA = A
2. A(BC) = (AB)C = ABC - (associative law)
3. A(B+C) = AB + AC - (first distributive law)
4. (A+B)C = AC + BC - (second distributive law)

Caution!
1. AB not generally equal to BA, BA may not be conformable
2. If AB = 0, neither A nor B necessarily = 0
3. If AB = AC, B not necessarily = C
Dr. Samrat Roy_
 Matrices - Operations
AB not generally equal to BA, BA may not be conformable

1 2
T 
5 0
3 4
S 
0 2
1 2  3 4  3 8
TS      
5 0  0 2 15 20
3 4  1 2  23 6
ST      
Dr. Samrat Roy_  0 2  5 0  10 0
Matrices - Operations
If AB = 0, neither A nor B necessarily = 0

 1 1  2 3   0 0
 0 0   2  3  0 0
    

Dr. Samrat Roy_

 Matrices - Operations
TRANSPOSE OF A MATRIX

If :
 2 4 7
3
A2 A  
2x3  5 3 1
Then transpose of A, denoted AT is:

 2 5
T
A 2 A 3T
 4 3
 7 1
T
aij a
Dr. Samrat Roy_
ji For all i and j
 Matrices - Operations
To transpose:
Interchange rows and columns
The dimensions of AT are the reverse of the dimensions of A

 2 4 7
3
A2 A   2x3
 5 3 1 
 2 5
T
A 3 A T2
 4 3 3x2
 7 1
Dr. Samrat Roy_
Matrices - Operations
Properties of transposed matrices:
1. (A+B)T = AT + BT
2. (AB)T = BT AT
3. (kA)T = kAT
4. (AT)T = A

Dr. Samrat Roy_

 Matrices - Operations
1. (A+B)T = AT + BT

 7 3  1  1 5 6  8 8 5  8  2
 2  5 6     4  2 3    2  7 9   8  7
       
 5 9 

7 2   1  4  8  2
 3  5   5  2  8  7 
     
  1 6   6 3   5 9 

Dr. Samrat Roy_

Matrices - Operations
(AB)T = BT AT

 1
 1 1 0    2
 0 2 3  1   8   2 8
   2  
 
 1 0
1 1 2 1 2 2 8
 0 3

Dr. Samrat Roy_

 Matrices - Operations
SYMMETRIC MATRICES
A Square matrix is symmetric if it is equal to its
transpose:
A = AT

 a b
A  
b d
T  a b
A  
 b d 

Dr. Samrat Roy_

 Matrices - Operations
When the original matrix is square, transposition does not
affect the elements of the main diagonal

 a b
A  
 c d 
T a c
A  
b d
The identity matrix, I, a diagonal matrix D, and a scalar matrix, K,
are equal to their transpose since the diagonal is unaffected.

Dr. Samrat Roy_

Determinants
Given a square matrix A its determinant is
a real number associated with the matrix.
The determinant of A is written:

det(A) or |A|
For a 2x2 matrix, the definition is

det a b = a b = ad - bc
c d c d
• For larger matrices the definition is more
complicated
Determinants 2x2 examples

det 1 2 = 1 2 = (1)(4) – (2)(3) = -2

3 4 3 4

det -5 2 = -5 2 = (-5)(0) – (2)(-2) = 4

-2 0 -2 0

det 1 2 = 1 2 = (1)(4) – (2)(2) = 0

2 4 2 4
 Determinants
To define det(A) for larger matrices, we will
need the definition of a minor Mij
The minor Mij of a matrix A is the matrix
formed by removing the ith row and the jth
column of A

M11 : remove row 1, col 1

1 1 -2
A = -1 2 3 2 3
M11 =
2 7 0 7 0
 Determinants
To define det(A) for larger matrices, we will
need the definition of a minor Mij
The minor Mij of a matrix A is the matrix
formed by removing the ith row and the jth
column of A

M12 : remove row 1, col 2

1 1 -2
A = -1 2 3 -1 3
M12 =
2 7 0 2 0
 Determinants
• To define det(A) for larger matrices, we
will need the definition of a minor Mij
• The minor Mij of a matrix A is the
matrix formed by removing the ith row
and the jth column of A

M13 : remove row 1, col 3

1 1 -2
A = -1 2 3 -1 2
M13 =
2 7 0 2 7
 Determinants
• To define det(A) for larger matrices, we
will need the definition of a minor Mij
• The minor Mij of a matrix A is the
matrix formed by removing the ith row
and the jth column of A

M21 : remove row 2, col 1

1 1 -2
A = -1 2 3 1 -2
M21 =
2 7 0 7 0
 Determinants
• To define det(A) for larger matrices, we
will need the definition of a minor Mij
• The minor Mij of a matrix A is the
matrix formed by removing the ith row
and the jth column of A

M22 : remove row 2, col 2

1 1 -2
A = -1 2 3 1 -2
M22 =
2 7 0 2 0
 Determinants
• To define det(A) for larger matrices, we
will need the definition of a minor Mij
• The minor Mij of a matrix A is the
matrix formed by removing the ith row
and the jth column of A

M23 : remove row 2, col 3

1 1 -2
A = -1 2 3 1 1
M23 =
2 7 0 2 7
 Determinants
• To define det(A) for larger matrices, we
will need the definition of a minor Mij
• The minor Mij of a matrix A is the
matrix formed by removing the ith row
and the jth column of A

M31 : remove row 3, col 1

1 1 -2
A = -1 2 3 1 -2
M31 =
2 7 0 2 3
 Determinants
• To define det(A) for larger matrices, we
will need the definition of a minor Mij
• The minor Mij of a matrix A is the
matrix formed by removing the ith row
and the jth column of A

M32 : remove row 3, col 2

1 1 -2
A = -1 2 3 1 -2
M32 =
2 7 0 -1 3
 Determinants
• To define det(A) for larger matrices, we
will need the definition of a minor Mij
• The minor Mij of a matrix A is the
matrix formed by removing the ith row
and the jth column of A

M33 : remove row 3, col 3

1 1 -2
A = -1 2 3 1 1
M33 =
2 7 0 -1 2
3.9.1 The formula for a 3x3 matrix
For a matrix
a11 a12 a13
A = a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33
• Its determinant is given by
|A| = a11|M11| - a12|M12| + a13|M13|
• From the formula for a 2x2 matrix:
a22 a23
|M11|= = a22a33 - a23a32
a32 a33
 The formula for a 3x3 matrix
For a matrix
a11 a12 a13
A = a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33
• Its determinant is given by
|A| = a11|M11| - a12|M12| + a13|M13|
• From the formula for a 2x2 matrix:
a21 a23
|M12|= = a21a33 - a23a31
a31 a33
 The formula for a 3x3 matrix
For a matrix
a11 a12 a13
A = a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33
• Its determinant is given by
|A| = a11|M11| - a12|M12| + a13|M13|
• From the formula for a 2x2 matrix:
a21 a22
|M13|= = a21a32 - a31a22
a31 a32
 3x3 Example

1 1 -2
A = -1 2 3
2 7 0

|A| = 1x|M11| - 1x|M12| + (-2)x|M13|

|A|= 1x 2 3 -1- 1x
3 -1 +
2 (-
2) 7 0 2 0 2 7

= 1x(-21) -1x(-6) +(-2)x(-11) = 7

 3x3 Example

0 1 3
B= 5 3 1
-1 2 0

|B| = 0x|M11| - 1x|M12| + 3x|M13|

|B|= 0x 3 1 5- 1x
1 5 +
3 3
x 2 0 -1 0 -1 2

= 0x(-2) -1x(1) +(3)x(13) = 38

 The formula for a 3x3 matrix
For the matrix
a11 a12 a13
A = a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33
• We used the top row to calculate the
determinant:
|A| = a11|M11| - a12|M12| + a13|M13|
• However, we could equally have used any row of
the matrix and performed a similar calculation
3.9.1 The formula for a 3x3 matrix
For the matrix
a11 a12 a13
A = a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33
• Using the top row:
|A| = a11|M11| - a12|M12| + a13|M13|
• Using the second row
|A| = -a21|M21| + a22|M22| - a23|M23|
• Using the third row
|A| = a31|M31| - a32|M32| + a33|M33|
 The formula for a 3x3 matrix
|A| = a11|M11| - a12|M12| + a13|M13|

= -a21|M21| + a22|M22| - a23|M23|

= a31|M31| - a32|M32| + a33|M33|

• Notice the changing signs depending on what
row we use:
+ - +
- + -
+ - +
 The formula for a 3x3 matrix

• Equally, we could have used any column as long

as we follow the signs pattern
+ - +
a11 a12 a13 - + -
A = a21 a22 a23 + - +
a31 a32 a33
• E.g. using the first column:
|A| = a11|M11| - a21|M21| + a31|M31|
• This choice sometimes makes it a bit easier to
calculate determinants. e.g.

1 1 -2
A= 0 2 3
0 1 1
• Using the first row:

|A|= 1x 2 3 0- 1x
3 0 +2(-2)
x 1 1 0 1 0 1

= 1x(-1) -1x(0) + (-2)x(0) = -1

• This choice sometimes makes it a bit easier to
calculate determinants. e.g.

1 1 -2
A= 0 2 3
0 1 1
• However, using the first column:

|A|= 1x 2 3 - 0 + 0 = 1x(-1) =
-1 1 1
A general formula for determinants

• For a 4x4 matrix we add up minors like the 3x3

case, and again use the same signs pattern

+ - + -
- + - +
+ - + -
- + - +
• Notice that if we think of the signs pattern as a
matrix, then it can be written as (-1)i+j
A general formula for determinants

• For a nxn matrix A=(aij) the co-factors

of A are defined by
Cij:= (-1)i+j|Mij|
• The determinant of A is given by the
formula
n
|A|= a C
i 1
ij ij for any j=1,2,...,n

• Or, n
|A|= a C
j 1
ij ij for any i=1,2,...,n
 INVERSE OF A MATRIX
Consider a scalar k. The inverse is the reciprocal or division of 1
by the scalar.
Example:
k=7 the inverse of k or k-1 = 1/k = 1/7
Division of matrices is not defined since there may be AB = AC
while B = C
Instead matrix inversion is used.
The inverse of a square matrix, A, if it exists, is the unique matrix
A-1 where:
AA-1 = A-1 A = I
Dr. Samrat Roy_
 Matrices - Operations
Example:
2 3 1
A2 A 
2 1
1  1  1
A  
 2 3
Because:
 1  1  3 1  1 0
  2 3   2 1  0 1
    
 3 1  1  1  1 0
 2 1   2 3   0 1

Dr. Samrat Roy_
   
 Matrices - Operations
Properties of the inverse:

( AB)  1 B  1 A 1
1 1
( A ) A
T 1 1 T
( A ) ( A )
1 1
1
(kA)  A
k
A square matrix that has an inverse is called a nonsingular matrix
A matrix that does not have an inverse is called a singular matrix
Square matrices have inverses except when the determinant is zero
When the determinant
Dr. Samrat Roy_ of a matrix is zero the matrix is singular
 Matrices - Operations
DETERMINANT OF A MATRIX

To compute the inverse of a matrix, the determinant is required

Each square matrix A has a unit scalar value called the
determinant of A, denoted by det A or |A|

1 2
If A 
6 5
1 2
then A
6 5

Dr. Samrat Roy_

 Matrices - Operations
If A = [A] is a single element (1x1), then the determinant is
defined as the value of the element
Then |A| =det A = a11
If A is (n x n), its determinant may be defined in terms of order
(n-1) or less.

Dr. Samrat Roy_

 Matrices - Operations
MINORS
If A is an n x n matrix and one row and one column are deleted,
the resulting matrix is an (n-1) x (n-1) submatrix of A.
The determinant of such a submatrix is called a minor of A and
is designated by mij , where i and j correspond to the deleted
row and column, respectively.
mij is the minor of the element aij in A.

Dr. Samrat Roy_

 Matrices - Operations
eg.
 a11 a12 a13 

A  a21 a22 a23 
 a31 a32 a33 
Each element in A has a minor
Delete first row and column from A .
The determinant of the remaining 2 x 2 submatrix is the minor
of a11
a22 a23
m11 
a32 a33
Dr. Samrat Roy_
 Matrices - Operations
Therefore the minor of a12 is:

a21 a23
m12 
a31 a33
And the minor for a13 is:

a21 a22
m13 
a31 a32
Dr. Samrat Roy_
 Matrices - Operations
COFACTORS

The cofactor Cij of an element aij is defined as:

i j
Cij ( 1) mij

When the sum of a row number i and column j is even, cij = mij and
when i+j is odd, cij =-mij
c11 (i 1, j 1) ( 1)11 m11 m11
1 2
c12 (i 1, j 2) ( 1) m12  m12
13
c13 (i 1, j 3) ( 1) m13 m13
Dr. Samrat Roy_
 Matrices - Operations
DETERMINANTS CONTINUED

The determinant of an n x n matrix A can now be defined as

A det A a11c11  a12 c12    a1n c1n

The determinant of A is therefore the sum of the products of the

elements of the first row of A and their corresponding cofactors.
(It is possible to define |A| in terms of any other row or column
but for simplicity, the first row only is used)

Dr. Samrat Roy_

 Matrices - Operations
Therefore the 2 x 2 matrix :
 a11 a12 
A  
 a21 a22 
Has cofactors :
c11 m11  a22 a22
And:
c12  m12  a21  a21

And the determinant of A is:

A a11c11  a12 c12 a11a22  a12 a21

Dr. Samrat Roy_
 Matrices - Operations
Example 1:
 3 1
A  
 1 2
A (3)(2)  (1)(1) 5

Dr. Samrat Roy_

 Matrices
For a 3 x 3 matrix:
- Operations
 a11 a12 a13 
A  a21 a22 a23 
 a31 a32 a33 
The cofactors of the first row are:
a22 a23
c11  a22 a33  a23 a32
a32 a33
a21 a23
c12   (a21a33  a23 a31 )
a31 a33
a21 a22
c 13 Roy_
Dr. Samrat
a21a32  a22 a31
a31 a32
 Matrices - Operations
The determinant of a matrix A is:

A a11c11  a12 c12 a11a22  a12 a21

Which by substituting for the cofactors in this case is:

A a11 (a22 a33  a23a32 )  a12 (a21a33  a23a31 )  a13 (a21a32  a22 a31 )

Dr. Samrat Roy_

 Matrices - Operations
Example 2:
 1 0 1
A  0 2 3
  1 0 1

A a11 (a22 a33  a23a32 )  a12 (a21a33  a23a31 )  a13 (a21a32  a22 a31 )

A (1)(2  0)  (0)(0  3)  (1)(0  2) 4

Dr. Samrat Roy_

 Matrices - Operations
ADJOINT MATRICES

A cofactor matrix C of a matrix A is the square matrix of the same

order as A in which each element aij is replaced by its cofactor cij .

Example:
 1 2
If A  
  3 4 

 4 3
The cofactor C of A is C  
  2 1 
Dr. Samrat Roy_
 Matrices - Operations
The adjoint matrix of A, denoted by adj A, is the transpose of its
cofactor matrix
T
adjA C
It can be shown that:
A(adj A) = (adjA) A = |A| I

Example:
 1 2
A  
  3 4 
A (1)(4)  (2)( 3) 10
T  4  2
Dr. Samrat Roy_adjA C  
 3 1 
Matrices - Operations
 1 2  4  2 10 0 
A(adjA)       10 I
  3 4  3 1   0 10

 4  2  1 2 10 0 
(adjA) A       10 I
 3 1    3 4  0 10

Dr. Samrat Roy_

 Matrices - Operations
USING THE ADJOINT MATRIX IN MATRIX INVERSION
Since
AA-1 = A-1 A = I

and
A(adj A) = (adjA) A = |A| I

then
adjA
1
A 
A

Dr. Samrat Roy_

 Matrices - Operations
Example
 1 2
A=   3 4
 

1 1  4  2   0 .4  0 .2 
A   
10  3 1   0.3 0.1 


To check AA-1 = A-1 A = I

1  1 2  0.4  0.2  1 0
AA       I
  3 4  0.3 0.1   0 1
1  0. 4  0. 2   1 2   1 0 
A A       I
Dr. Samrat Roy_ 0.3
 0.1    3 4  0 1
 Matrices - Operations
Example 2
3  1 1 
A  2 1 0 
 1 2  1
The determinant of A is
|A| = (3)(-1-0)-(-1)(-2-0)+(1)(4-1) = -2

The elements of the cofactor matrix are

c11 ( 1), c12  ( 2), c13 (3),
c21  ( 1), c22 ( 4), c23  (7),
c31 ( 1), c32  ( 2), c33 (5),
Dr. Samrat Roy_
 Matrices - Operations
The cofactor matrix is therefore
 1 2 3
C  1  4  7 
  1 2 5 

so
  1 1  1
adjA C T  2  4 2 
 3  7 5 

and
  1 1  1  0.5  0.5 0.5 
1 adjA 1     1.0 2.0  1.0 
A   2  4 2
A  2   
Dr. Samrat Roy_  3  7 5    1.5 3.5  2.5
 Matrices - Operations
The result can be checked using

AA-1 = A-1 A = I

The determinant of a matrix must not be zero for the inverse to

exist as there will not be a solution
Nonsingular matrices have non-zero determinants
Singular matrices have zero determinants

Dr. Samrat Roy_

 Matrix Inversion

Simple 2 x 2 case

Dr. Samrat Roy_

 Simple 2 x 2 case
Let
and
 a b  w x
1
A   A  
c d  y z

Since it is known that

A A-1 = I

then
 a b   w x   1 0
 c d   y z   0 1 
    

Dr. Samrat Roy_

Simple 2 x 2 case
Multiplying gives

aw  by 1
ax  bz 0
cw  dy 0
cx  dz 1

It can simply be shown that

A ad  bc

Dr. Samrat Roy_

 Simple 2 x 2 case
thus
1  aw
y
b
 cw
y
d
1  aw  cw

b d
d d
w 
da  bc A

Dr. Samrat Roy_

Simple 2 x 2 case
 ax
z
b
1  cx
z
d
 ax 1  cx

b d
b b
x 
 da  bc A

Dr. Samrat Roy_

Simple 2 x 2 case

1  by
w
a
 dy
w
c
1  by  dy

a c
c c
y 
 ad  cb A

Dr. Samrat Roy_

Simple 2 x 2 case

 bz
x
a
1  dz
x
c
 bz 1  dz

a c
a a
z 
ad  bc A

Dr. Samrat Roy_

 Simple 2 x 2 case
So that for a 2 x 2 matrix the inverse can be constructed
in a simple fashion as
 d b
 A A  1  d  b
1 w x   
A     c a  A   c a 
 y z  A
 A 

• Exchange elements of main diagonal

• Change sign in elements off main diagonal
• Divide resulting matrix by the determinant
Dr. Samrat Roy_
 Simple 2 x 2 case
Example
 2 3
A  
 4 1 
1 1  1  3   0.1 0.3 
A  
10   4 2   0.4  0.2
 

Check inverse
A-1 A=I

1  1  3  2 3  1 0
       I
10   4 2   4 1  0 1
Dr. Samrat Roy_
 Matrices and Linear
Equations
Linear Equations

Dr. Samrat Roy_

Linear Equations
Linear equations are common and important for survey
problems
Matrices can be used to express these linear equations and
aid in the computation of unknown values
Example
n equations in n unknowns, the aij are numerical coefficients,
the bi are constants and the xj are unknowns

a11 x1  a12 x2    a1n xn b1

a21 x1  a22 x2    a2 n xn b2

Dr. Samrat Roy_ an1 x1  an 2 x2    ann xn bn
 Linear Equations
The equations may be expressed in the form
AX = B
where

 a11 a12  a1n   x1   b1 

 a21 a22  a2 n   x2   b2 
A   , X   , and B  
       
 an1 an1  ann   xn   bn 

nxn nx1 nx1

Number of unknowns = number of equations = n

Dr. Samrat Roy_
 Linear Equations
If the determinant is nonzero, the equation can be solved to produce
n numerical values for x that satisfy all the simultaneous equations
To solve, premultiply both sides of the equation by A-1 which exists
because |A| = 0

A-1 AX = A-1 B
Now since
A-1 A = I

We get
X = A-1 B

So if the inverse of the coefficient matrix is found, the unknowns,

X would be determined
Dr. Samrat Roy_
 Linear Equations
Example
3 x1  x2  x3 2
2 x1  x2 1
x1  2 x2  x3 3

The equations can be expressed as

 3  1 1   x1   2
 2 1 0   x   1 
   2  
 1 2  1  x3   3

Dr. Samrat Roy_

 Linear Equations
When A-1 is computed the equation becomes

 0.5  0.5 0.5   2  2 

X  A 1 B   1.0 2.0  1.0   1    3
  1.5 3.5  2.5  3  7 

Therefore
x1 2,
x2  3,
x3  7

Dr. Samrat Roy_

 Linear Equations
The values for the unknowns should be checked by substitution
back into the initial equations

x1 2, 3 x1  x2  x3 2
x2  3, 2 x1  x2 1
x3  7 x1  2 x2  x3 3

3 (2)  ( 3)  ( 7) 2
2 (2)  ( 3) 1
(2)  2 ( 3)  ( 7) 3
Dr. Samrat Roy_