INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION
• Literally, Geography is a field of knowledge that helps us to understand our
environment with all its natural and human elements, which together make the
earth a complex but the only habitable planet in the solar system.
• It is mainly concerned with space and place, that’s why deals with the spatial
arrangement of things at different places on the earth’s surface, resulting from
a dynamic interaction between man and nature.
• Geography is a multidisciplinary subject as it uses information generated by
other subjects to analyze the emerging patterns and structures of the earth’s
surface and their implications for human-beings.
 INTRODUCTION
Definitions: Geography is a vast field of knowledge, therefore, it has been variably
defined by different scholars in different terms, though all definitions highlight a
single fundamental theme, i.e. the Man-Environment interaction on the Earth
surface. Few notable definitions of the subject are:

[Link] is a discipline that seeks to describe and interpret the variable

character from place to place of the earth as the home of Man. (Richard
Hartshorne 1959).

[Link] tells about what is, where, why and what these are made of
(Bowman).

[Link] is the science of places (Vidal de la Blache).

 INTRODUCTION
4. Geography is concerned with the description and explanation of the areal
differentiation of the earth’s surface (David Harvey).

5. Geography is the branch of knowledge which deals with the study of

interaction between man and his environment.

6. Geography is the study of the spatial variations on the Earth surface.

7. Geography is the study of Earth's landscapes, people, places and

environments.

8. Geography is concerned with place. It deals with the spatial arrangement of

things at different places on earth surface resulting from a dynamic interaction
between humans and nature.
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9. The purpose of Geography is to provide a view of the whole earth by mapping
the location of places (Ptolemy 150 CE).

10. Geography is a synoptic discipline synthesizing findings of other sciences

through the concept of Realm (area or space) (Immanuel Kant, 1780).

11. Geography is a Synthesizing discipline to connect the general with the special
through measurement, mapping and a regional emphasis (Alexander von
Humboldt, 1845)

12. Geography is the study of ‘Man in society and local variations in environment
(Halford Mackinder, 1887)
 INTRODUCTION
[Link] describes how environment apparently controls human
behavior (Ellen Semple, 1911).
[Link] is a ‘study of human ecology; adjustment of man to
natural surroundings (Harland Barrows, 1923).
[Link] is the study to understand the earth as the world of man
(J.O.M. Broek, 1965).
[Link] is fundamentally the regional or chorological science of
the surface of the earth ( Robert E. Dickinson, 1969).
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[Link] is the study of variations in phenomena from place to
place (Holt-Jensen, (1980).
[Link] is the study of earth as the home of people (Yi-Fu Tuan,
1991).
[Link] is the study of the patterns and processes of human
(built) and environmental (natural) landscapes, where landscapes
comprise real (objective) and perceived (subjective) space (Gregg
Wassmansdorf, 1995).
 INTRODUCTION
Evolution of Geography: The history of geography is closely connected with the history of
human society and its development. But as a science, geography is relatively young as many of
its fundamentals appeared during 19th century. The history of the evolution of geography can be
divided into three Eras:
[Link] Era: This Era is further divided into;
[Link] Period: Geography was first systematically studied by the ancient Greeks. Thales of
Miletus, Herodotus, Eratosthenes, Aristotle, Strabo, Plato, Anaximander and Ptolemy made
major contributions to geography.

•Their period is known as the “Golden Age of Greece”. The work of Greeks contains numerous
references to mountains, delta formation, weather changes, winds, rains, earthquakes and
volcanoes.

•The ancient Greeks divided the world into three continents: Europe, Asia and Africa.
 INTRODUCTION
B. Romans:

•The Roman contribution to geography was in the exploration and mapping of

previously unknown lands. The Romans made far more extensive practical use of
geography and maps.
•The Roman transportation system, consisting of 55,000 miles of roads, could not
have been designed without the use of geographical systems of measurement and
triangulation.
•The Cursus Publicus - a department of the Roman government devoted to
transportation, employed full-time surveyors.
•The surveyors job was to gather topographical information, and then to
determine the straightest possible route where a road might be built.
 INTRODUCTION
C. Chinese:
In China, the earliest known geographical Chinese writing dates back to the 5 th
century BC.
Their Documents, which describes the traditional nine provinces of ancient China,
their kinds of soil, their characteristic products and economic goods, their trades
and vocations, their state revenues and agricultural systems, and the various rivers
and lakes listed and placed accordingly.
Although, the Chinese geographical writing in the time of Herodotus and Strabo
were of lesser quality and contained less systematic approach, this would change
from the 3rd century onwards, as Chinese methods of documenting geography
became more complex than those found in Europe, a state of affairs that would
persist until the 13th century.
 INTRODUCTION
2. Middle Ages: This Era has been divided into;

[Link]:

•Greek geographic learning was maintained and enhanced by the Arabs during the Middle
Ages. Arab geographers, among whom Idrisi, Ibn Battuta, and Ibn Khaldun are prominent,
traveled extensively for the purpose of increasing their knowledge of the world.

•Along with the geographical wisdom of the Chinese and the great accomplishments of the
Roman Empire, the Arabs, who spoke only Arabic, employed Christians and Jews to translate
books and many other manuscripts into Arabic.

•With the rise and spread of Islam (7 th to 14th century A.D.), Muslim geographic knowledge
increased considerably as a result of travel for religious and economic reasons.
 INTRODUCTION
• Geography has always been a special interest to Muslims as many
religious rituals such as fasting and prayer required the appropriate
knowledge of time and direction.
• This sense of time and direction encouraged an early stage of the
development of relevant instruments for measurements. One of the
earliest observatory stations was established by the Arabs in
Damascus, Baghdad and Cairo.
• The journeys of Marco Polo in the latter part of the Middle Ages
began the revival of geographic interest outside the Muslim world.
 INTRODUCTION
B. Christians:

•The earliest contribution of Christian Geography was like that of Muslim

contributions, the production of guidebooks for pilgrims traveling to the Holy
Lands.
•A second type of Christian geography is based entirely on sculpture, as in the
case Christian Topography by Cosmas. The third genre was the encyclopedia, a
form already well established in Roman times, being the best example the
Etymologiae by Isidore of Seville.
•It is to the Byzantines that we owe the survival of Ptolemy's work, but few
examples of actual Byzantine geographical writing exist.
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• One is that of Procopius, a historian of the age of Justinian and the
second that of Constantine VII, an emperor-statesman who ruled the
Byzantine Empire during the 10th century.
• The age of discoveries, which mostly took part during the late 15 th
and early 16th centuries, navigators managed to circumnavigate
Africa opening a direct sea route to the spice lands of Southern Asia.
• And a New World was found to the west, later called America, and
by sailing around its southernmost extremity, it was possible to sail
around the whole world. The result was a complete change on the
view of the world and of geography.
 INTRODUCTION
3. Modern Geography:
•The modern period of geography began toward the end of the 18th century, with the works of
Alexander Von Humboldt and Karl Ritter.
•Thenceforth, two principal methods of approaches to geography can be distinguished: the
systematic, following Humboldt, and the regional, following Ritter.
•Of the national schools of geography that developed, the German and the French schools were
the most influential. The German school, known mainly for physical geography. The French
school became known for human and historical geography.
•Although, emphasis has shifted several times between the approaches and viewpoints, their
interdependence is recognized by all geographers.
•Since the end of World War-II, geography, like other disciplines has experienced the
explosion of knowledge brought on by the new tools of modern technology for the acquisition
and manipulation of data.
 INTRODUCTION
• These include aerial photography, remote sensors (including infrared and satellite
photography) and the computer (for quantitative analysis and mapping).

• Important contributions to the advancement of geography and to the development of

geographic concepts have been made by Ferdinand von Richthofen, Albrecht Penck,
Friedrich Ratzel, Alfred Hettner, Karl Haushofer, and Walter Christaller in Germany. Paul
Vidal de la Blache, Jean Brunhes, Conrad Malte-Brun, Elisee Reclus and Emmanuel de
Marton in France and William Morris Davis, Isaiah Bowman, Ellen Churchill Semple, Carl
O’ Sauer, Albert Brigham and Richard Hartshorne in the United States.

• Research is stimulated by such noted geographic institutions as the Royal Geographical

Society (1830, UK), the American Geographical Society (1852, US), and the Societe de
Geographie (1821, France), consequently, today geography is studied by governmental
agencies and academia in many of the world's universities.
 INTRODUCTION
Branches of Geography: Geography is one of the important subjects of understanding the
spatial science of the earth in relation with the components of physical and human aspects.
Geography is basically divided into two main branches:

[Link] Geography: Physical geography (or physiography) focuses on geography as an

Earth Science. Physical Geography is the study of earth's seasons, climate, atmosphere, soil,
streams, landforms, and oceans. It aims to understand the physical problems and the issues
relating to earth’s surface and its characteristics representing spatial relationships and varying
patterns. Thus, it includes:
[Link] land surface and its features (Lithosphere)
[Link] water surface and its characteristics (Hydrosphere)
[Link] envelop surrounding the earth (Atmosphere)
[Link] organisms in the environment (Biosphere)
 INTRODUCTION
• All these four components with their varying spatial and temporal aspects have produced
different characteristics features on the earth.

• This is well observed by spatial distribution of different phenomenon on the surface of the
earth, e.g., distribution of relief features natural vegetation, birds and animals, human
population etc.

• However, all these phenomena are unevenly distributed on the earth surface. Physical
geography can be divided into several branches like:

i. Astronomical Geography:

• It is the part of mathematical geography that treats the earth in its relation to the other
celestial bodies in the solar system.

• This geography studies the earth as a planet with its shape, size, imaginary lines of latitude
and longitude, time zones, and the earth's diurnal and annual motions.
 INTRODUCTION

ii. Geomorphology: According to Bloom ‘Geomorphology is a

systematic description and analysis of landscapes and the processes
that change them.
iii. Climatology:
• Climatology is the aggregate study and analysis of climatic
conditions with long term keen observations.
• It deals with the atmospheric changes, take place in the atmosphere
due to temperature, humidity and atmospheric pressure, and so the
formation of various climatic zones on the earth and their influence
on the natural environment are closely observed.
 INTRODUCTION
iv. Meteorology:

• Meteorology is the interdisciplinary scientific study of the

atmosphere that focuses on weather processes and short term
forecasting.
• Meteorologists are interested in the atmospheric processes that
affect daily weather, and they use current data to forecast weather
conditions.
• Meteorological phenomena are observable weather events which
illuminate and are explained by the science of meteorology.
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v. Oceanography: According to J. Proudman, “Oceanography studies
the fundamental principle of dynamics and thermodynamics in
relation to the physical and biological properties of the Sea water. It
is related to the study of oceans i.e. temperature, salinity of ocean
water, relief of the ocean floor, movements of water, tides, ocean
currents and etc.
vi. Hydrology: It is a study of earth’s surface water bodies found in the
form of oceans, rivers, glaciers, lakes and seas, underground water,
water vapour in the atmosphere.
 INTRODUCTION
vii. Biogeography: It is a study of factors responsible for
evolution and spatial uneven distribution of various
species (plants and animals / flora and fauna) found on
the Earth.
viii. Soil Geography: It helps to understand the formation, its
nature (structure and texture), types and distribution on
the earth. Soil is the most important component of the
earth that determines the growth and distribution of
natural vegetation and thus the species associated with it.
 INTRODUCTION
2. Human Geography: Human Geography is the study of Human occupancy.
• It studies the patterns of human activities in an environment. It includes
human, political, cultural, economic aspects of social sciences.
• Human geography studies various activities in relation to its physical
components and involves quantitative and qualitative data for analysis.
• Human geography is studied with the help of thematic maps giving location
and other attributes of the phenomena under study, e.g., e distribution and
pattern of rural and urban settlements, transport and communication lines etc.
in any area.
 INTRODUCTION
Following are some branches of human geography like:
[Link] Geography: This branch explains us about spatial distribution and
concentration of different types of economic activities influenced by physical
factors and practiced by man based on their locational attributes. This branch of
geography deals with the economic aspect of human societies under the following
sub-disciplines:
[Link] Geography: This branch of economic geography focuses on the study
of resources their distribution, production, utilization and conservation.
[Link] Geography: It studies spatial variations in agricultural activity-the
cultivation of soil in order to grow crops and rear livestock.
 INTRODUCTION
a. Industrial Geography: It studies the spatial variations in industrial activity on the earth’s surface.

b. Transport Geography: It studies the mobility of goods and transport.

[Link] and Cultural Geography:

• This geography studies various traditions, customs and traits of a community
which is reflected in their life-style, dress pattern, food- habits, religious rituals,
fairs and festivals, arts and architecture, language, and the type of occupation
practiced by them and the nature of governance over the space.
• It studies the social phenomena and occupation of social space, the
development of human cultures etc. under the following sub-disciplines:
 INTRODUCTION
a. Political Geography: Political geography deals with the study of the
organization of political system. It mainly deals with its jurisdiction
(boundaries and frontiers) and nature of relationship with neighboring and rest
of the world. The functioning of the government would determine the status
and its power within & outside the country in the world.

b. Population Geography: This is a branch of geography which studies factors

responsible for various patterns of spatial distribution and location of
population on the earth’s surface. It studies various demographic aspects of
population explaining growth, structure and occupation of population and other
socio-cultural aspects.
 INTRODUCTION
c. Medical Geography: It is the study of distribution of spatial or seasonal incidence of
epidemic and endemic aspect of disease distribution.

d. Settlements’ Geography: It studies the spatial extent of human settlements; their origin and evolution in
relation to their site and situation; their structure and pattern, nature of functions .

e. Urban Geography: It studies the spatial extent of urban areas, their distribution, evolution,
growth and development etc.

f. Anthropo-geography: It studies the origin and evolution of human species.

g. Historical Geography: Is a branch of geography that takes into account the geographical
and human factors and processes responsible for the happening of different historical acts
and events in the space over a period of time.

h. Tourism Geography: It is the study of travel as an industry as a social and cultural

 INTRODUCTION

C. Interface Geography: Following are the branches of Interface

Geography:
[Link] Cartography: It is a science of preparing maps and diagrams
involving field survey with specific themes representing the spatial distribution of
the phenomenon under study, population map.

[Link] Cartography: Thematic maps and graphs prepared by adopting

quantitative and qualitative data analysis using specialized software’s in a
computer are called as computer or digital cartography. Computer cartography
has provided ease by saving time, cost and energy while producing different spatial
dimension of maps / diagrams.
 INTRODUCTION

iii. Geographical Information System (G.I.S.):

• GIS is a system that facilitates storage and intelligent use of data
about land and water resources and human activities.
• An essential feature of GIS is the use of computer hardware and
software to collect, store, operate and process the geographic data.
• This technology is highly utilized in the field of integrated
development planning now-a-days such as, water resource
management, water-shed management, environmental monitoring
and assessment, landscape conservation, telecommunication and
network analysis, defense and military planning operations etc.
 INTRODUCTION
iv. Remote Sensing:
• Remote sensing is the process of collection of data about an object
from a distance without coming into physical touch, e.g., aircraft
provides with aerial photographs, space satellites provide with
satellite imagery.
• These have specific uses such as information about weather
phenomenon, security purpose, identified the areas affected with
flood/ drought/ earthquake, landslide, land-use, study of natural
resource etc.
 INTRODUCTION
v. Quantitative Geography: The application of mathematical and statistical
concepts and methods to the study of geography is called Quantitative
Geography. It deals with the empirical study of spatial phenomenon found on
the earth surface that helps in determining certain scientific principles and
laws.

vi. Geography of Health: Health geography is the application of geographical

information with spatial perspectives and methods to the study of health,
disease, and health care of any area.

vii. Environmental Geography: This branch of geography studies how physical

and human environment are interacting with each other to produce different
land-use and its effect on the natural environment and on living species as
well.
 INTRODUCTION
[Link] Geography:
• Coastal geography is the study of the dynamic interface between the
ocean and the land, incorporating both the physical geography and
the human geography of the coast.
• It involves an understanding of coastal weathering processes,
particularly wave action, sediment movement and weathering, and
the ways in which humans interact with the coast.
 INTRODUCTION
Branches & Sub-branches of Geography

Physical Geography Human Geography Interface Geography

1. Astronomical Geography 1. Population Geography 1. Thematic Cartography
2. Geomorphology 2. Settlements Geography 2. Digital Cartography
3. Climatology 3. Economic Geography 3. Remote Sensing
4. Meteorology 4. Cultural Geography 4. Geographic Information System
5. Oceanography 5. Historical Geography 5. Quantitative geography
6. Hydrology 6. Political Geography 6. Environmental geography
7. Soil Geography 7. Medical Geography 7. Bio-geography
8. Tourism Geography 8. Geography of Health
9. Coastal Geography
 INTRODUCTION

Relation with other Disciplines:

•Geography is the study of the physical environment in relation to the
human world.
•The concepts of geography are seen to have rooted in the thinking of
the philosophers and geographers in different forms.
•Geography is considered as a link subject between physical and social
sciences, and it includes both nature and man, on their relationship.
•Geography and its relation with other disciplines are discussed below;
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[Link] and Social Sciences:
• Each social science has interface with one branch of geography. The
relationships between geography and history have already been outlined in
detail.
• Philosophy provides roots to a discipline and in the process of its evolution. It
also experiences distinct historical processes.
• Thus, the history of geographical thought as mother branch of geography is
included universally in its curricula.
• All the social science disciplines, viz. sociology, political science, economics
and demography study different aspects of social reality.
 INTRODUCTION
• The branches of geography, viz. social, political, economic, population and
settlements are closely linked with these disciplines as each one of them has
spatial attributes.
• The core concern of political science is territory, people and sovereignty while
political geography is also interested in the study of the state as a spatial unit
as well as people and their political behaviour.
• Economics deals with basic attributes of the economy like production,
distribution and consumption.
• Each of these attributes also has spatial aspects and here comes the role of
economic geography to study the spatial aspects of production, distribution,
exchange and consumption.
 INTRODUCTION
2. Geography and Natural Sciences:
• All the branches of physical geography have interface with natural
sciences. The traditional physical geography is linked with geology,
meteorology, hydrology, geomorphology, climatology,
oceanography and soil geography respectively have very close link
with the natural sciences as these derive their data from these
sciences.
• Bio-Geography is closely related to botany, zoology as well as
ecology as human beings are located on different locations. A
geographer should have some proficiency in mathematics and art,
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• Geography is very much linked with the study of astronomical
locations and deals with latitudes and longitudes.
• The shape of the earth is Geoid but the basic tool of a geographer is
a map which is two dimensional representation of the earth.
• The problem of converting geoids into two dimensions can be
tackled by projections constructed graphically or mathematically.
• The cartographic and quantitative techniques require sufficient
proficiency in mathematics, statistics and econometrics.
• Maps are prepared through artistic imagination. Making sketches,
mental maps and cartographic work require proficiency in arts.
INTRODUCTION
 INTRODUCTION
Scope of Geography:
Scope of a subject refers to the subject matter or topics that a subject deal with.
The surface of earth is a dynamic entity as it changes constantly.
The goal of Geography is to study the origin of these changing phenomena, the
processes that change them and have brought them to the present state and
arranged them in the space in the way they exist.
Besides this, it also studies implications of their location and arrangement of
these phenomena for human beings.
Being a spatial science, geography studies the surface features of earth and their
association with one another and derives meaningful spatial and regional patterns.
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Objectives of Geography: The fundamental questions that the subject of
geography tries to answer are:
[Link] are the natural and cultural features on the surface of the earth?
[Link] have they come into being?
[Link] are they distributed and why?
[Link] are they associated with each other?
[Link] the existing patterns of distribution conducive to human welfare?
[Link] can be done to modify them?
[Link] are the implications of the proposed changes?