FIELD METHODS IN

PSYCHOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH IN
PSYCHOLOGY
 Introduction to
Research in
Psychology

If we knew what we were doing,

it would not be called research, would
it?
- Albert Einstein
 Philosophy of Science

If you are a scientist you believe that it is good to find

out how the world works, that it is good to find out what
the realities are, that it is good to turn over to mankind at
large the greatest possible power to control the world...
It is not possible to be a scientist unless you believe that
the knowledge of the world, and the power which this
gives, is a thing which is of intrinsic value to humanity,
and that you are using it to help in the spread of
knowledge, and are willing to take the consequences.
‑ J. Robert Oppenheimer (1904‑1967)
Philosophy of
Science
We are in the position of a little child
entering a huge library filled with books
in many different languages. The child
knows someone must have written
those books. It does not know how. It
does not understand the languages in
which they are they are they are
written. The child dimly suspects a
mysterious order in the arrangement of
the books but doesn't know what it is.
- Albert Einstein
A knowledge of statistics is like a
knowledge of foreign
languages or of algebra;

 it may prove of use at any

time under any
circumstances.
- A.L. Bowley
 Outlin
e
• What is research?
• Research terminology
• Steps in a
research
investigation
• Types of research
 Student Research
Opportunities
• Research participation
• Research seminars
• Research news e.g., via Google
Alerts.
• Research journals
What do you wonder about?
What is
research?

Research =
disciplined
inquiry
 What is Research?

Research is formalised
curiosity.
It is poking and prying
with a purpose.
- Zora Neale Hurston
 What is psychological research?

• Research is an attempt to
understand the world in general.
• Psychological research, more
specifically, is an attempt to
understand human experiences
of themselves and the world.
 What is psychological research?

• Systematic development &

testing of theory about human
behavior & mental events
• Disciplined enquiry into human
feelings, behaviours, thinking,
etc.
 Quick Fun Survey

• What is your favourite colour?

• What is your favourite number?
• What sex is the number 4?
• What sex is the number 8?
 Psychological Research

Just as research of our

physical world has lead to
our creation of incredibly
artful and scientific
structures, so too
psychological research
holds out the promise of
discovering the architecture
of our psyche and our
behaviour in the world
around us.
Quick Fun
Survey
 Research Tip #1:
Research is a Language

• Research is a language
• Learn key terms / concepts
• Undergraduate study, especially 1st
year, is about acquiring the
language skills to access and make
sense of recorded research
knowledge
 Research Tip#2:
Research Involves Skilled Use of
Tools
 Research Tip #3:
Research is a Way of Thinking

• Researchers need to acknowledge

& understand the limits of intuition
& common sense
• Philosophy of science
• The scientific attitude
• The scientific method
 Research Tip#4:
Research is a Holistic Exercise

• Holistic yet involves Many Parts

• Creative yet Disciplined
• Goal-driven yet Open
• Individual yet Social
• Intellectual yet Physical
• Cyclical yet Project-Oriented
 Research Tip#5:
Psychological Research is
a Recent Phenomenon
• Western, scientific, psychological
research only has about a 50-100
year history.
• Much still to be discovered -
prospects for considerable growth &
opportunity.
e.g., due to technology, incredible new
research possibilities are becoming
available.
 Research Tip#6:
Theory is the
Engine of
• TheoryResearch
refers to a specific set of
assumptions and principles about a
phenomenon.
• Derive hypotheses (or
guesses / predictions)
• Systematically test in various
conditions in order to determine the
utility of the theory.
Theories, Hypotheses & Research
Observations
• Theories
– e.g., Low self-esteem feeds depression
• Hypotheses
– e.g., People with low self-esteem score
higher on a depression scale
• Research and Observations
– e.g., Administer tests of self-esteem
and depression. See if a low score on
one predicts a high score on the other.
 Design Your Own Study

 What topics would you like

to research?

 Create a research question

e.g., “what is the effect of meditation on
stress?”

 What kind of research would it

involve? Describe a study.
 Critical
Thinking
 Thinking that does not blindly
accept arguments and
conclusions
 examines assumptions
 discerns hidden values
 evaluates evidence
 An Iterative Model of
The Research
Process Need for
information/
research
Problem
Reporting definition

Data collection Research

& analysis design

Sampling
 Steps in a Research
Investigation
• Theory • Data
– Research Question – Collection
– Hypotheses – Entry
• Method – Analysis
– Sampling • Reporting /
– Instrumentation Disseminatio
– Ethics n
 Independent vs.
Dependent Variables
 Independent Variable
 the factor that is manipulated
 the variable whose effect is being studied
 Dependent Variable
 the factor that may change in response to
manipulations of the independent
variable
 in psychology it is usually a behavior or
mental process
 Science is based on…

• Knowledge of facts
• Developing theories
• Testing hypotheses
• Public and repeatable procedures
Samplin
g
 Research Methods

• Qualitative – analyses words, pictures,

etc.
• Quantitative – analyses numbers\
• Experimental – randomized sampling
• Quasi-experimental – use natural
sampling
• Non-experimental – cross-sectional
survey
 Data-Collection Methods

Self-report - people rate or describe

their behaviour, opinion, or mental
state
• questionnaires
• rating scales
– e.g., from 1 to 7 rate your opinion of
…
• perceptions
 Data-Collection Methods

• Observational - researchers
directly observe and record
behavior rather than relying on
subject descriptions
– naturalistic observation -
researcher records behavior as
it occurs naturally
– tests - researcher presents stimuli
or problems and records
Methodological Approaches:
Qualitative
Subjective - individuals’
interpretation of events is
important
• e.g., participant observation, in-
depth interviews, etc.
Methodological Approaches:
Quantitative
Quantitative
• Objective – seeks precise
measurement & analysis of
target concepts
• e.g., uses surveys,
questionnaires
etc.
 Operationalisation

 Refers to how a fuzzy psychological

construct is actually measured
–e.g., the concept of intelligence
has been operationalised
through a variety of IQ tests
 Ways of Gathering Data

• Physiological
• Case Study • Experiential
• Observation sampling
s – e.g., with
palm pilots
• Surveys
• Archival
– Mail
– Interviews records
– Online
•
 Research Settings
• Laboratory
– a setting designed for research
– provide uniform conditions for
all subjects
– permits elimination of
irrelevant factors
– may seem artificial
 Research Settings
• Field research
– behavior observed in real-
world setting
– poor control over conditions
– measures may be
more representative of
reality
 Ethical Issues in
Psychological Research
• Right to privacy
• Informed consent
– use of deception
• Animal rights
– Is there justification for discomfort
or harm a research procedure may
produce?
• APA publishes ethical guidelines
 Case Study

 Study of individuals
in great depth.
 Aims to reveal
things true of all.
 Rich data, time
consuming, difficult Is language
to generalise. uniquely
human?
 Survey Research

 Commonly used
 Ascertains self-reported attitudes
or behaviors of people
 Ideally question a representative,
random sample of people
 Descriptive Study

• Describes patterns of behaviour and

links between variables but doesn’t
imply causation
• Describes a set of facts
e.g., measure the % of new UC students from
interstate each year since 1980
Naturalistic Observation
 Observing and
recording behavior
in naturally
occurring situations
without trying to
manipulate and
control the situation
 Field-rich data, time
consuming, difficult to
generalise
 Experimental
Research
 Experimenter manipulates the IVs, then
measures the results on the DVs
 Random Assignment
 Control group = treat same as
experimental group except for the IV
manipulation
 Experimental group = treat same
as
control group except for the IV
manipulation
 Resulting differences are
concluded to be
 Experimental
Research
 Experimental Condition
 the condition of an experiment that
exposes participants to the treatment,
that is, to one version of the
independent variable
Experimental
Research
 Control Condition
 the condition of an experiment
that contrasts with the
experimental treatment
 serves as a comparison
for evaluating the effect of
the treatment
 Descriptive
Statistics
 Summarise & convey patterns in
the sample data
 Central tendency
 mean, mode, median (central
tendency)
 Variation (spread)
 range, min, max, standard deviation
(variation)
 Inferential
Statistics
 Inferential statistics
 tests whether the sample results can be
generalised to a population, using
probability-based statistics.
 Relations with other variables
 Correlation, linear regression, etc.
 Differences between variables
 Chi-squared, t-test, etc.
 Replication

 Nothing is considered “proven” until at

least several studies have been
conducted showing similar results.
 Replication is the process of
reconducting a previous research study
to see whether its findings are
generalisable.
 Usually replicate with different
participants in different situations.
 Bias in Research

 Sampling bias
 Measurement bias
 Observer bias
 Self-report bias
 Experimenter bias
 Publication bias (file drawer
effect)
 Summary – Research Basics
(nuts & bolts)

 exp., quasi-exp., non-exp.

 qual. vs. quant.
 observations, interviews,
surveys
 descriptive vs. inferential
statistics
 Summary

 Discover your passion & follow it 

 Research is a language, a science, a discipline

 Formal testing of theories of human behavior

 “Failed” research often tells us as much as “successful” research

END