Floral Biology, Anthesis, Pollination, Selfing and

Crossing Techniques in Rice (Oryza sativa L.) 2n = 24

The knowledge of floral biology is a pre-requisite for breeding and
crop improvement work
Floral structure gives an idea of various pollination mechanisms of self and
cross pollinated crops to some extent

Floral Structure:
 The inflorescence of rice is a
terminal panicle borne on a long
peduncle
The main axis of the panicle: the
primary rachis bears a number
of secondary rachis
The secondary rachis further
branches into tertiary ones which
bears a spikelet at its tip
Spikelet
 Spikelet consists of two empty glumes (sterile glumes)
 two fertile glumes (lemma and palea)
 six stamens in two whorls and
 a pistil having a single central ovule
 a short slender style with two plumose stigmas
 two transparent fleshy lodicules situated at the base of the spikelet
attached to the inner side of the fertile glumes represent the reduced
perianth
Lemma is rough, large, boat shaped,
strongly five nerved - apex is solid or it
may be awned
Palea is narrower than lemma and
strongly three nerved
The extended tips of the lemma & palea
are the “apiculus”.

At the time of anthesis: the lodicules

become turgid and thrust the lemma and
palea apart exposing the fertile
stamens
Lodicules help in the opening of the
floret
Floral Biology and anthesis
Blooming of spikelets starts at the apex of the panicle and proceeds
downward
Spikelets generally open on a full sunny day and the maximum blooming
occurs between 8 a.m and 11 a.m
A panicle remains in bloom for 2 to 4 days but may extend up to 7 – 10
days
Each spikelet remains open for 30 minutes and then closes
The anther dehiscence takes place immediately after the opening of the
spikelets
Receptivity of stigma is maximum during first three days after opening of
the spikelets and then gradually decreases and is lost within 7 days
Viability of pollen grains is only for five minutes
Selfing Technique
Rice is a self- pollinated crop
An hour before blooming (7 a.m.) butter paper bag is placed over the
panicle to avoid any contamination from foreign pollen and to ensure
selfing
The bag may be removed after 2-3 days
Emasculation and Crossing techniques
Emasculation is necessarily followed by controlled pollination
Emasculation is done during early morning between 6 and 8 a.m.
in spikelets due to open on the same day
Crossing techniques is differs based on the method of
emasculation
Since maximum number of spikelets open on the 3rd or 4th day of
anthesis panicles of that stage are selected for emasculation

Following methods are widely used for hybridization in rice

Methods of emasculation

Hand Emasculation

Clipping method

Hot water method

Dr. Ramiah method

Vacuum emasculation method

Cuttack Method

Brown paper method

Rhind’s method
Hand Emasculation (Removal of anthers)
Spikelets which are expected to open on the next day morning
are selected and are made to open by slightly separating the lemma
and palea and the anthers are removed with the help of forceps
Clipping method
In the previous day evening: top l/3rd and bottom
l/3rd portions in the panicle of the desired female
parent are clipped off by using scissors leaving
the middle spikelets

With the help of scissors again: top 1/3 portion in

each spikelet is clipped-off in a slanting position

Six anthers present in each spikelet are

removed with the help of the needle

Care must be taken during emasculation for not

to damage the gynoecium
Then to prevent contamination from the foreign pollen the emasculated
spikelets are covered with a butter paper bag

Next day morning (usually at 9.00 a.m.) the bloomed panicle from the
desired male parent is taken

Top portion of the butter paper bag which was originally inserted in the
emasculated female parent is now cut to expose the panicle

The male parent panicle is

inserted in an inverted
position into the butter paper
bag and is turned in both ways
in order to disperse the pollen
After ensuring the abundant disbursement of pollen the opened
butter paper bag is closed using a pin
Colored thread may be tied at the base of the panicle to identify the
crossed ones
After ensuring pollination the bag may be removed
Hot water method
Hot water emasculation is used to about the same extent as the clipping
method
Panicles in 3rd (or) 4th day of blooming are chosen as female parents.
An hour or so before blooming (i.e. normally at 7. a.m.) the panicle is
selected and under developed and opened spikelets are removed
Now the tiller is bent over (carefully to avoid breaking) and the selected
panicle is immersed in hot water contained in a thermos bottle at 40-440C
for a period of 5 to 10 minutes
This treatment causes the florets to open in a normal manner and
avoids injury
Then emasculation is done by removing the six stamens by fine
forceps or needles
Dr. Ramiah method
Panicles on the 3rd or 4th day of its blooming are selected top and lower
splikelets are removed leaving only the middle

It is covered with a wet cloth and air is blown from mouth

This facilitates opening of spikelets

After 2-3 minutes wet cloth is removed and spikelets are found to be open

Then the six anthers are removed

Vacuum emasculation method
This works on the principle of suction pressure
The spikelets tip are clipped off prior to operation
The minute pipette is to be shown at the point of clipping and pollen is
sucked in.
Six panicles can be emasculated at a time
By hand emascualtion: 100 flowers can be emasculated by a person.
With the vacuum emasculator six persons can operate and emasculate
3000 to 3600 florets/hour
Cuttack Method
The technique was developed by CRRI Cuttack

The panicle to be emasculated is inserted into hollow piece of bamboo

closed at one end and plugged with cotton wool and split cork at the
other end

The flowers thus enclosed will open within 5-10 minutes.

After opening of the spikelets the anthers are removed

Brown paper method
The panicles are enclosed in a Brown paper cover before a
couple of hours of blooming

Heat develops inside due to which the anthers extrude but do not
dehisce

This happens in 15-30 minutes then the anthers are easily clipped
off

Stigmatic surface is then dusted with pollen grains collected from

the chosen male parent

The crossed panicle is then properly tagged and protected with

paper cover which is retained in a position for 7 – 10 days
Rhind’s method
Hot water is kept in the flask and it is poured outside

After pouring out the water inside of the flask will be warm and
humid

The panicle to be emasculated will be inserted into the flask and

kept for some time

Due to high temperature and humidity the spikelets will get

opened and the anthers are exposed which can be removed with the
help of forceps
Crossing
Emasculated panicle is covered with butter paper bag - Emasculated flowers may
be pollinated next morning by
Placing ripe anthers in each floret by hand
Shaking a panicle that is shedding pollen over the emasculated panicle
Approach method: in which pollen shedding of male plant is supported in test
tube with water and bagged along with emasculated panicle in a butter paper
bag (Poehlman - 1987)
Bagging and labeling is done immediately after pollination. The labels are
tagged to the inflorescence or to the flower - thread
Date of emasculation
Date of pollination
Parentage
No. of spikelets/ panicle emasculated
Crossing ledger
For maintenance of pedigree record the basic thing required is Crossing
Ledger.
This Ledger gives the details about parentage, Season in which the
cross is made.

[Link]. Cross Number Parentage

1. XS 9801 CO 2 x MS 9804
2. X S 9802 CO 4 x C152
3. X S 9803 CO 1 x CO 4
Pedigree record
In Pedigree method: a detailed record of the relationship between the
selected plants and their progenies is maintained as a result of this
each progeny in every generation can be traced back to the F 2 plant

from which it originated such record is known as pedigree record or

pedigree

The pedigree may be defined as a description of the ancestors of an

individual and it generally goes back to some distant ancestors

Thus it describes the parents, grandparents, great grandparents so

on of an individual
Maintenance of Pedigree record: in several ways
- Must be simple and accurate

- Each cross is given a number: first 2 digits – year

and remaining digits denotes serial number of the
cross in that year

- Eg: 7911 denotes the cross number 11 of year 79

In segregating generations two systems:

 Designation based on the location of progeny rows

in field – System I
 Designation based on the serial numbers of selected

plants – System II
 System I: the individual plant progenies in F3 and later generations
are assigned row numbers corresponding to their location in the
plot
 In addition each progeny in F4 and the subsequent generation is
assigned the row number of the progeny in the previous
generation from which it was derived

Generation Number Description

F3 7911-7 Progeny in the 7th row in F3 plot

Progeny in the 4th row in F4 plot selected

F4 7911-7-4
from the progeny in 7th row of F3 plot

Progeny in the 14th row in F5 plot selected

F5 7911-4-14
from the progeny in 4th row of F4 plot

Progeny in the 3rd row in F6 plot selected

 System 2: In each generation the selected plants are assigned
serial numbers within individual progenies
 Each progeny or selected plant bears the serial number of all
the plants in the previous generation related to it by direct
descent
 Thus the plants selected in F2 are given serial numbers of their

parents (F2 plants)

 The plants selected from a progeny in F3 are given the number

of that progeny and in each generation the selected plant also
given a serial number
Generation Number Description
Progeny obtained from plant number 7 selected in
F3 7911-7
F2
Progeny from plant No.4 selected from the F3
F4 7911-7-4
progeny derived from the plant No.7 selected in F2

Progeny from plant No.2 selected from the F4

progeny derived from plant No.4 selected from
F5 7911-7-4-2
the F3 progeny obtained from the plant No.7

selected in F2

Progeny from plant No. 8 selected from the F5

progeny derived from plant No.2 selected from
F6 7911-7-4-2-8
the F4 progeny of plant No.4 selected from the F3

progeny of Plant No.7 selected in F2

 In this system the pedigree of a progeny is immediately known
and one does not have to refer to the previous year record
 But there are greater chances of error since more numbers are
to be recorded

 In both the systems: the progenies are assigned a different

serial number when they become homozygous and are
included in preliminary yield trials
 This number is given to those homozygous lines that are
included in preliminary yield trials
For keeping a pedigree record following points are important:
 Only important characteristics should be recorded
 Only the promising lines should be included in the record
 Poor progenies may be simply marked discard
 The pedigree record must be accurate

 To obtain a general idea about the inheritance of characters by

studying the pedigree record
Floral Biology, Anthesis, Pollination, Selfing and
Crossing Techniques in Wheat
Inflorescence: Terminal distichous spike with tough rachis, awned or
awnless, glabrous or hairy

Floral structure
Entire inflorescence on one
culm is spike which consists of
separate group of florets
(flowers) known as spikelets
Each spikelet of common
wheat has two to five florets
The florets are subtended by
two empty scales called
glumes
 Each floret consists of a flowering glume (lemma) and a thin
two loculed glume (palea)
These two glumes enclose three stamens - a single ovary with
bifurcated short styles and feathery stigmas and two small
lodicules
Floral biology
Main culm flowers first and the tillers bloom later
Flowering starts at approximately 2/3 from the base and proceeds in the
both the directions
Blooming: throughout the day - takes 3-5 days for completion

Flower opening: Between 9 a.m. to 2

p.m. and peak period is between 10 a.m.
to 1 p.m
Anther dehiscence takes place
simultaneously and
Hence the crop is highly self pollinated
(<1 % cross- pollination)
Selfing: Inflorescence is covered with a butter paper cover prior to
anthesis and undisturbed till the flower opening completed

Emasculation
Wheat is a self pollinated crop
For emasculation - 1/4 to 1/3 upper
part of spike is clipped - few basal
and immature florets are also removed

In the remaining: 5 – 6 pairs of

spikelet - the central florets are also
removed and the emasculation is
carried out in the remaining lateral
florets of each spikelet
Glumes are clipped back and
anthers are removed with fine
pointed forceps

The emasculated spike is

covered by a pollination bag

After 1 – 2 days the stigmas

are visible and the emasculated
spike is ready for pollination
Crossing
Done with the fresh pollen as pollen grains remain viable for a short
period (1 – 3 hours)

For preparing male spike: a spike showing a few protruding anthers is

removed from the male parent - Its glumes are cut without any damage to
the anthers

It is held in vertical position / stalk inserted in ground under sunlight for a
few minutes - During this process- anthers emerge out of cut glumes
The upper portion of the pollination bag on the emasculated spike is
cut with scissors

Through this opening the male spike shedding pollen is inserted

and shake over the emasculated spike by twining motion and the
bag is closed with the help of U clip

This fast process of emasculation

and pollination is common and
described as ‘go go’ method of
crossing

Two other ways to pollinate

female spikes are the twirl and
approach method
Twirl method
It is rapid and quick

Top of the bag covering the female spike is cut off and pollinating
male spike is inverted into the bag parallel to the female spike

The male spike is vigorously rotated by twirling its peduncle between

the thumb and forefinger
Approach method
The female spike is positioned slightly below the male spike and both
spikes are covered with a bag

Detached male spikes can be kept alive to shed pollen for 2 or more
days by placing their culms in water

Breeders have better success with the approach method than with the
anther transfer or twirl method

After pollination: the spike is recovered immediately to minimize

accidental pollination
Paper tags are used to record the cross number, the parents, dates of
emasculation and pollination
Floral Biology, Anthesis, Pollination, Selfing and
Crossing Techniques in Maize
Floral Biology
Maize is a monoecious plant

Sexes are partitioned into separate pistillate (ear or cob): female flower
and staminate (tassel): male flower

The main shoot terminates

in a staminate tassel

Maize is generally
protandrous
TASSEL: It is a terminal branched panicle in which paired spikelets (one
sessile and one pedicelled) are produced on both, the central axis and in the
branches
Each spikelet has 2 glumes, lemma, palea, 2 fleshy lodicules and 3
stamens and rudimentary pistil
COB: Ear bearing branch (cob) is much like main shoot - covered by the leaf
like structures called husk (bracts) having enlarged leaf sheaths forming a
protective covering around the inflorescence
The spikelets occur in pairs - lower flower is non-functional represented by a
lemma and palea

The upper one is fertile and consists of a

membranous lemma and palea and a knob
shaped ovary long thread like style called
silk
Silk functions both as stigma and style and
it is receptive to fresh pollen grains throughout
the entire length.
Lodicules are generally absent.
Anthesis
A cross pollinated crop with 95% cross pollination
The anthesis starts from tip and proceeds downward
Maize is protoandrous in which pollen shedding normally begins 1-3
days before the emergence of silk and continues 3-4 days after the
silks are ready to be pollinated
A single tassel may produce as many as 2,50,00,000 pollen grains
Pollen grains are viable for 12-18 hours
Pollen may be carried by wind upto one kilometer (Anemophily)
Fertilization occurs within 12-28 hours after the silks are pollinated
Selfing

Cover method
Bag the tassel before anthesis with a brown paper cover usually
called as tassel cover

Bagging should be done in the previous day evening to avoid

contamination

Cut the tip of the cob before the silks emerge and cover with a silk
cover - butter paper cover

After 3-4 days: the silks will emerge in the form of a

‘saving brush’

Remove the cover of the tassel containing pollen

and insert it over the cob after removing the silk
cover
Tap the tassel cover gently so that the pollens fall uniformly on all
the silks. Then insert this cover well in the cob and tie it at the base.
The tassel and cob in a plant are covered with separate paper
covers and pollen grains collected in the tassel cover are deposited on
the silk.
Usually periodical (2-3 times / day) exchange of the two covers will
ensure selfing. This is continued for 4-5 days.

The cover on the cob is retained for 2-3 weeks till the receptivity of
the silk is completely lost.
Bottle method
 Just before anthesis the tassel pulled out from the plant and the stalk
inserted into a bottle containing water

The male flowers in this condition will remain alive for 2-3 days

This bottle with the live tassel is tied above the cob of the same plant
and both are covered with a single cover and retained for 2-3 days

Then tassel is removed and cob is kept covered for 2 more weeks or till
the receptivity of the silk is lost
Crossing technique
Female parent
[Link] the tassel before pollen dehiscence (Detasseling)
[Link] the tip of the cob before the silks emerge and cover with silk cover

Male parent
[Link] the tassel before anthesis begins
The details like date of pollination, parentage and breeding
programme to be carried out are clearly written by water proof
pencil

The date of pollination will be one day later than the date of
tasselling

Pollination should be completed within one week of silk

emergence
 Ex. No: 3 – Sorghum and Millets
Floral Biology, Anthesis, Pollination, Selfing and
Crossing Techniques in Sorghum
Sorghum - Sorghum bicolor (2n = 20)
Origin: Originated in Ethiopia

Related species
Sorghum arundinaceum and Sorghum halepense

Floral biology
Inflorescence is usually compact or semi-compact or loose (lax) panicle
Panicle consists of paired spikelets

One is sessile and the other is pedicellate or staminate

Sessile or fertile or perfect spikelet: Bisexual or hermaphrodite and has

2 glumes (G1 & G2) and has 2 flowers inside
Lower flower is sterile with lemma
(L1) and no palea

Upper flower is bisexual with

lemma (L2), palea (P2), 2 lodicules, 3
stamens and a single ovary with 2
long styles ending in a feathery stigma

Staminate or pedicelled spikelet:

2 glumes enclosing 2 florets

Lower floret - lemma only and upper

floret - lemma, no palea, 2 lodicules,
3 stamens and pistil absent
Anthesis
Blooming starts in the upper most panicle branch and proceeds downwards

Flowering occurs prior to sun-rise or in the early morning and may extend
to mid-day under cloudy day

Six to nine days are required for a panicle to complete blooming

Anthers dehisce when they are dry (but not in heavy dew or rain) and pollen
blows through air

Stigmas are receptive before flowering (Protogyny) and receptive for 6-8
days
Pollen is viable only for a few hours under natural conditions and loses its
viability rapidly

Fertilization is completed within 2-4 hours after pollination

Sorghum is normally self-pollinated but some florets are protogyny

resulting in cross pollination averaging about 6%

Sorghum is classified
as Often cross
pollinated crop
Selfing
Head bagging becomes efficient for selfing the ear heads

Once the decision to bag heads has been made - all heads in a row
should be covered

If a head has already begun to flower -

the flowering portion should be cut off

During head bagging: boot leaf of the

plant is usually removed prior to placing
the bag
Crossing technique: Emasculation
1) Hand emasculation
Only a part of the panicle is emasculated and the remaining panicle is clipped
away

During clipping: flowered tip and the lower panicle branches are removed

About 50 florets which would normally flower the following day are selected for
emasculation

Needle is inserted at the middle of the floret and moved across the glumes

The needle is rotated at 900 and three anthers are lifted out
The emasculated panicle is covered by a suitable paper bag
2) Hot water method
Panicle flowered tip and lower panicle
branches are removed
About 50 florets (in clusters of two or three)
are immersed in hot water at 480C for 10
minutes

3) Plastic bag/ mass emasculation technique

Sorghum panicle is covered with plastic bag
This creates high humidity inside the bag
Under such a humidity: florets open - anthers emerge but shed no pollen
The anthers are knocked free of head by tapping
In this method: some selfing occurs
Marker genes are needed to identify the plants arising from selfed seed
Pollination
On a dry morning when pollen shedding occurs between 6.00 and 7.00 a.m.
the hand pollination may be done around 9.30 a.m.

In rainy days: the operation may be started at 11.30 a.m. - 12.30 p.m.

The pollen is collected in paper bags

Sorghum pollen kept in bags is viable for 10-20 minutes

For collection: appropriate heads may be selected and bagged in the previous
night itself

The collected pollen is dusted over the exposed stigmas or pollen producing
head may be brushed over an emasculated head
Pearl millet - Pennisetum glaucum (2n = 14)
Origin: West Africa
Related species:
P. ramosum (2n = 10)
P. purpureum (2n = 28)
P. orientale (2n = 18, 27, 36, 45, 54)

Floral biology
Compound terminal spike called panicle, cylindrical, peduncle thin

A rosette of bracts consists of bristles

and spikelets united at the base and
known as involucre

Each involucre may include one to nine

fertile spikelets
A single spikelet has one upper and one lower floret

The lower floret is staminate or sterile which consists

of a single lemma - 3 stamens – P1 (Palea) may be
present or absent - Lodicules absent – No ovary

Upper floret is fertile – posseses lemma, palea, three

anthers and a pistil with two feathery stylar branches
These structures are enclosed between lemma and palea

Pollination : Cross pollination takes place because of the protogynous

nature of the flower
But self pollination also takes place to certain extent
due to overlapping of female and male phases in the
same inflorescence
Anthesis
Pearl millet is a naturally cross pollinating species due to protogynous
nature

All flowers first exert stigmas 1 to 3 days earlier and fertilized by out
crossing with the help of wind

Stigmas wither about 8 hours after pollination

Self pollination can occur when stigma emergence on later flowering

tillers which overlaps anthesis of earlier head and around 20% self
pollination is reported

Because of protogyny - Blooming occurs between 10 p.m. and mid-night

The stigmas remain receptive for 1-2 days

The anthers emerge after drying of the styles

Anthers emerge in two waves

First involves the perfect flowers and Second wave commences 2-3 days
later involving staminate flowers

Pollen grains viable for 5-7 hours

Anthesis starts from the upper third of the head and proceeds towards the
base
Selfing
To ensure selfing - spikes may be bagged before emergence of the
stigmas

As the spike elongates it may be necessary to adjust the bag to cover the
lower most spikelets

Crossing
Emasculation in pearl millet is laborious and difficult due to the small size of
the flowers and the late maturity of the anthers

For cross pollination about 4/5 of the upper portion of the spike is
clipped and the left over portion is bagged

Likewise the ears of the pollen parent are also bagged

As soon as the stigmas of the female parent emerge - the entire panicle is
dusted by shaking a pollen shedding spike of the male parent

The bag of the female parent is cut along the top and the clipped earhead
of male parent is introduced into the female bag and rotated around the
ear-head gently brushing the stigmas

The bag on the female is folded down and stapled

Details of the cross, the date of pollination should be given

When the female and male parents are closer are of the same height and
synchronous in flowering - the earheads of both the parents are enclosed
in one bag for cross-pollination

This method is particularly suitable for making cross between A and B

lines
Ragi/ Finger millet - Eleusine coracana (2n=4x=36)
Origin: India
Related Species
E. indica (2n = 18)
E. brevifolia (2n = 36)
E. verticillata (2n = 36)

Floral Biology
Terminal digitate, straight or slightly curved Spikes

 Spikes borne on a long peduncle from the end - four to

five spike radiate in a whorl called fingers with an odd one
a little lower down the whorl called as the thumb

Shape the inflorescence - 5 types: top curved, incurved,

fisty, open and Cocks comb
Unit of inflorescence is a spikelet and are densely packed on the side of each
rachis in two rows
The average number of spikelets in each finger is above seventy
Each spikelet contains 6 to 12 florets enclosed by two common glumes (G1
and G2) - outer small and inner large
Florets are bisexual

Each floret contains a lemma and palea with three stamens and a superior
ovary with two feathery stigmas and two broad and truncate lodicules inside
Anthesis and Pollination
In Spike: flower opening is from top to bottom
In spikelet: opening of the floret is from base to top and one floret in each
spikelet opens a day and maximum number of florets open on the third day

An inflorescence takes 7 to 8 days to complete anthesis

Anthesis takes place between 1 a.m. and 5 a.m.

As soon as the glumes and palea begin to open - the stigmas and anthers
emerge almost simultaneously and soon after the anthers dehisce and
pollinate their own stigmas

Glumes close between 7 a.m. and 8 a.m.

Selfing: Panicle before commencing anthesis is covered with paper cover and
retained till the blooming is over

Crossing
Both hand emasculation and hot water treatments are followed

Hand emasculation is done in the evening and pollination is done very early in
the morning - before 6. 0 a.m.

For hot water treatment the

panicle is immersed in water at
52oC for two minutes - then the
spikelets are pollinated early in the
morning
Approach method or contact method
Inflorescence to be opened will be selected and cut with long stalk from the
male parent
This is brought to the emasculated flower

The male flower as a whole will be tied round with female flower - then they
are covered with butter paper bag

The cut end of the male inflorescence will be immersed in water kept in a bottle

Natural cross pollination takes place in 2 to 5 days

Marker genes are utilized for identifying the hybrid seedlings in the nursery plot

60-90% seed set is recorded in both methods

Little Millet / Samai - Panicum sumatrense (2n = 36)
Inflorescence is a panicle
Panicle contracted along nodding
Primary panicle branches appressed: panicle branches scabrous, drooping at
maturity
Spikelets comprising of 1 basal sterile floret and 1 fertile floret without rachilla
extensions
Spikelets are elliptic - dorsally compressed – acute - persistent on plant – 3
anthers

Self-pollinated crop

Panicle takes 15 days to

complete blooming

Anthesis time: 9 to 11.30 a.m.

Kodo Millet / Varagu - Paspalum Scrobiculatum (2n=40)
Inflorescence of spicate (arranged in spikes) main branches - digitate
or sub digitate - non digitate

Spikelets are hermaphrodite - florets 2

Lower sterile and without stamens
Upper fertile
Lemma and palea present
Lodicules present - 2 [free, fleshy and glabrous]
Stamens 3
Ovary glabrous - styles free to their bases,
stigmas 2 and red pigmented
Self pollinated crop and it has
cleistogamous flower or
chasmogamous (open don't exceed
15-20%) with and without hidden
cleistogenes

Spikelets at the middle of spikes open

first and gradually spread to either end

Spikelets open after midnight: from

2.30 a.m. to 3.00 a.m. and continue till
sunrise
Barn yard Millet / Kudiraivali - Echinochloa colona (2n=36, 48, 54, 72)
Panicles are long, erect to slightly drooping at maturity
Spikelets often with 1 sterile and 2 bisexual florets
Spikelets are more or less crowded on the spike like branches of the panicle
Anthers 3 and are purple in colour
Order of flowering is from tip to the bottom of panicle
The total flowering period extends from 19-22 days
Anthesis - 5 am to 10 am

Peak flowering
time is 6 a.m. to 7
a.m.
Self-
pollination is the
general rule
Proso Millet / Panivaragu - Panicum miliaceum (2n = 36)
Common millet / French millet / Brown corn millet
Inflorescence is a drooping panicle
Spikelets contains two florets - lower sterile floret which is staminate or
without stamen - upper fertile floret
Stamens 3 and Superior ovary
Self-pollinated crop with more than 10% cross pollination.

Panicle takes
10 days to complete
flowering

Anthesis: 10
am to 12 pm
Foxtail Millet / Tenai - Setaria italica (2n=18)
Panicle is compound, large, heavy, dense, cylindrical lobed borne on
a very thin and short pedicel

Rachis: soft, hairy bristles, 1-3 per spikelet, central rachis frequently lax
and panicle drooping

Spikelet's bear 2 florets: lower

floret sterile and upper floret
perfect

Self-pollinated with 0 to 10 per

cent natural crossing
Anthesis
Self-pollination is the rule
Flowering proceeds from the top to downward in the main panicle and from
the tip downwards in each of the panicle branches
The stigmatic branches are the first to emerge
After that anthers emergence start dehiscing by longitudinal slits from the top
to bottom – the process takes about three minutes
After the emergence of first anther - five to ten minutes the other two are
pushed out

After pollination the

lodicules shrink and
the glumes begin to
close
Time taken for an earhead to complete flowering varies from ten to fifteen
days
From the third to sixth day of emergence a large number of flowers open
Two maximum wave of flowering: During a day - one between 10 p.m. and
midnight and other between 6 a.m. and 8.a.m.
Panicle takes 10-15 days to complete blooming
 Emasculation and crossing technique in small millets

Hand emasculation is tedious because of small sized florets.

To overcome this the Russian method is followed
Method
Select the panicle which first commenced flowering
Remove the already opened florets
Rub the selected panicle in between hands to increase the temperature by 1
to 2o C for 2 minutes
Immerse the panicle in cold water
The flowers will open but anthers will not dehisce
Take out panicle from water and remove unopened flower
From opened florets remove anthers
Pollination
Collect the panicle from male parent which are in the process of
flowering

Shake the panicle on the emasculated florets

Tie the male panicle to the emasculated female panicle

Cover it with butter paper bag which was immersed in water

The water in butter paper will maintain humidity

 Ex. No: 4 – Redgram and Chickpea
Floral Biology, Anthesis, Pollination, Selfing and
Crossing Techniques in Redgram
Floral Biology
Axillary or terminal raceme borne on long peduncle

The flowers are yellow or purple

Calyx tube is campanulate

Corolla is highly zygomorphic,

papilionaceous and yellow

It includes one standard petal

(Vexillum/ flag), two wing petals
and two keel petals
Stamens are 10 - diadelphous (9+1)

Stamens show dimorphism

Of the 10 stamens: four have short filaments and six have long filaments

Ovary is superior, sub-sessile, densely pubescent with 2-9 ovules

Style is long, filiform and

glabrous

Stigma is capitate
Anthesis
Often cross pollinated crop

Self pollination: Occurs in the bud before the flowers open

Cross pollination: Takes place after the opening of flower with the help of
insects

In the young buds: Stigma lies above the level of anthers - Style is so curved at
the tip - that the stigmatic surface is directed towards the anthers

As the bud develops: Filaments

elongate bringing the top five anthers
dehisce in the bud a day before the
flowers open

Self pollination takes place

Receptivity of stigma starts 68 hours before
anthesis and continues for 20 hours after
anthesis

This favours cross pollination

Cross pollination from 0 to 70% has been

observed in redgram

Selfing:
Selfing is done by covering an individual inflorescence, a branch of a plant,
or a whole plot
When a large amount of seed is required, group of plants are covered with
bee-proof cages
Bagging

Three types of selfing bags

Glassine bag (13 cm x 8cm) to cover an individual inflorescence

A small – muslin – cloth bag (60cm x 20cm) to a cover a flowering branch

A large muslin – cloth bag (135cm x 90cm) to cover an entire plant

Emasculation
Bud most likely to shed pollen the next day are selected for emasculation

Steps
Hold the bud firmly between the thumb and middle finger with support of the
index finger so that the keel of the standard is facing towards the emasculator

Remove or push down the sepal covering the keel

Open the corolla by inserting one tip of the forceps at the base of the keel
Move the forceps upward to the tip of the standard

Press the bud with a slight pressure until it opens. This makes the anthers
visible
With the forceps remove the anthers from the staminal column

Count the anthers or examine the bud with a magnifying glass to ensure
that all the anthers or their broken parts are completely removed

Pollination
Stigma is receptive before anthesis - pollination can be done immediately
after emasculation

Source buds are collected between 8.00 and 10.00 a.m.

Remove the corolla of the pollen – source bud so that the staminal
columns and anthers are uncovered
To transfer pollen: hold the flower in one hand and touch the anthers to the
stigma of an emasculated bud

A single flower can be used to pollinate two or three emasculated flowers

To identify the artificially pollinated buds small, bright – colored, thin nylon
thread is tied to the peduncle of the bud.
Seeds are harvested only from such pods

Seed is harvested at
physiological maturity 30 – 35
days after pollination
Floral Biology, Anthesis, Pollination, Selfing and Crossing
Techniques in Bengalgram
Chickpea / Bengalgram / Channa [Cicer arietinum - 2n=16]
Chickpea is a herbaceous annual with a robust and long tap root system
Floral Structure
Chickpeas have solitary papilionaceous flowers in axillary racemes

Small (is 1.5 mm long) and triangular bracts are found

Pedicels are straight when flowering and curved when

bearing fruit

Chickpea has a glabrous calyx and has five partly

joined sepals

Peduncle and calyx are hairy

Corolla is veined and may be pink, purple, red, white,

blue, greenish white in colour
Standard petal or vexillum is clawed, glabrous or scarcely pubescent and
does not have any glandular hairs
Wings are free and obovate
Keel is incurved with 2-3 mm long pedicel
Stamens are diadelpous, 9 fused stamens and the 10th stamen is free (9+1)
Anthers are dorsifixed

Pollen is orange coloured

Ovary is ovate and covered by
predominantly glandular hairs on its
surface with 2-4 ovules
Style is linear, upturned and 3 to 4 mm
long with a globose stigma
Floral Biology
Chickpea is a self pollinated crop with out crossing limited to 1.58%
Self pollination takes place one or two days before opening of the flower
Flowers open in morning and close in the afternoon and each flower opens
on two or three successive days

Developmental Stages of the Bud and Flower

Eshel (1968) identified five stages of development of the bud and flower in
chickpea
a. Closed bud: Stigma is immature and anthers are still at the base of the bud

b. Hooded bud: Corolla has elongated and the anthers are about half the height
of the style. The stigma is receptive
c. Half-open flower: At this stage the anthers attain the same height as
the stigma and the pollen mature just before the dehiscence of the anthers
Self-pollination takes place at this stage while the keel petal remains
closed preventing the entry of foreign pollen
For crossing pollen are collected at this stage

d. Fully open flower: The anthers become shrivelled while the standard
and wing petals are fully expanded. Fertilization takes place 24 h after
pollination

e. Fading flower: This is the post fertilization stage in which the ovary
begins to elongate.
Anthesis
Anther dehiscence takes place inside the bud one day before the opening of
the flower

When pollen are first liberated: the stigma is still above and quite free from the
base of the anthers

The filament gradually elongates to carry the anthers above the stigma

This process is completed before the flower opens thus facilitating self-
pollination
Anthesis in chickpea is throughout the day
Emasculation
Buds that are likely to be in anthesis after one or two days are selected for
emasculation

In such a bud (hooded bud) the anthers are not yellow

The bud to be emasculated should be held gently at the base with the
thumb and fore finger

Snip off the frontal sepal

Push the keel petal downwards by slitting it with a fine-pointed forceps to

expose the anthers

Remove the anthers and count them and also check with the help of a lens to
ensure that no anther is left in the flower
 [Link].5

Floral biology, Anthesis, Pollination, Selfing and Crossing

techniques in Greengram, Blackgram, Cowpea, Soybean,
Horsegram and Lablab
Green Gram / Mung bean/ Moong - Vigna radiata (2n=22)
Floral Structure
Papilionaceous having one standard, two wings, two keels, diadelphous
androecium and a gynoecium
Gynoecium is monocarpellary with a superior unilocular ovary
The stigma is hairy and placentation is marginal

The calyx comprises of five sepals, three

large and free and two small and fused

Keel encloses the reproductive organs, 10

stamens and one gynoecium
Anthesis
Flowers open between 6 a.m. to 8 a.m. and remain open till 11 a.m.
Anthers start dehiscing by 9 p.m. and are completely dehisced by 3 a.m.
Self pollination is the rule
Cleistogamous in nature
For pollination: Staminal column having stamens and anthers intact is taken
out from the freshly opened flowers and rubbed against the stigma of the
emasculated bud

Emasculation in the evening

and pollination in the next morning
gives best results in pod set

Emasculation in the morning

and pollination in the evening of the
same day results in good pod set
Black Gram / Urd bean - [Vigna mungo - 2n=22]
Calyx includes five sepals and calyx lobes are lineage
Corolla (5 petals) is pale yellow
The standard petal is 12-16 mm wide. There are two wing and two keel
petals. Stamens 10 - diadelphous [9+1]
Style is spirally twisted
Urdbean is a highly self pollinated crop with cleistogamy upto 42%

Anthesis occurs in the early morning

hours

Hand pollination is required for achieving

desired hybrid combinations

Emasculation and pollination is done

as in greengram
Cowpea - Vigna unguiculata (2n = 22)
Floral Structure
The flower is bisexual, white, purple or pale violet
It is complete flower with five sepals and five petals
The keel petal is straight
The standard petal is whitish to violet in colour

The calyx is composed of five

sepals - gamosepalous
The two are large and three
are small which makes (2+3)
arrangement of sepals
 The corolla is papillionaceous with an erect standard spreading at
the time of flower opening

The pigmentation pattern of corolla varies from white to solid mauve

with yellow spots near the base of the standard petal

The wings are adherent to the boat -

shaped keel enclosing the androecium

The stamens are diadelphous (9+1)

Anthers are bright yellow

Ovary is monocarpellary, unilocular

with many ovules
Anthesis
Cowpea flowers are large and showy

Mostly flowers open between 7 and 9 a.m.

But the dehiscence of the anthers is much earlier

It may vary from 10 p.m. to 12.45 a.m.

Because dehiscence of anthers happens before flower opening

Cowpea is self pollinated in nature

Emasculation and Pollination
Emasculation needs to be carried out in mature flower buds in the
preceding evening
After emasculation the disturbed parts of standard, wing and keel are
brought in original position as far as possible
To prevent drying out of the emasculated bud - a leaflet may be folded
and pinned around the bud
A tissue paper can be used to cover and protect the bud

Pollination is done on next morning from the freshly opened flower

Cowpea flowers are highly sensitive and drop off easily with slight
mechanical disturbance or injury

More crosses are to be effected

Soybean - Glycine max (2n = 40)
Inflorescence: Flower small, numerous upto
twelve on short racemes arising in the axils of the
leaves, white or purple

Calyx hairy, standard broad, auricled at the

base, pale coloured whitish or light purple with
deep purple veins at its base

Androecium : Stamens ten (10) Monadelphous

Gynoecium : Ovary short, hairy with short

curved style and apical stigma present above the
stamens

Pollination : Self pollination is the rule

Horsegram - Macrotyloma uniflorum
 2n=24
Flowers are yellow or greenish yellow on
very short stalk
Sessile or sub-sessile, 2 to 4 flowered
axillary racemes
Calyx: Campanulate, sepals 5,
gamosepalous
Corolla: Papilionaceous, petals 5,
polypetalous
Androecium: Stamens ten, diadelphous
(9+1), filaments alternately short and long,
anthers uniform, dorsifixed

It is a self pollinated crop

Lablab - Lablab purpureus [2n=22,24]

Inflorescence is lax, fascicled of many

flowered racemes on elongated peduncles

Flowers are white or blue or purple on

short pedicels

Papilionaceous corolla with superior

ovary and persistent style and 10 stamens
(9+1)

It is predominantly self-fertilizing

 [Link].6

Floral biology, Anthesis, Pollination, Selfing and Crossing

techniques in Groundnut, Sesame and Sunflower
Groundnut - Arachis hypogaea [2n=40]
Floral biology
Inflorescence is unique among domesticated plants in that it flowers above ground
but produces seeds below the soil surface

Flowers are borne on axils of leaves on primary or secondary branches and

each node has upto five flowers

However three flowers per inflorescence

 Flowers are modified sessile with papilionaceous corolla that appear to
be stalked due to presence of tubular hypanthium or calyx lobe

Flower is subtended by a bract with a second bract on the inflorescence

branch

Two calyx lobes and corolla consists of 5 petals (1 standard, 2 wing, 2

keel) and the calyx has 5 sepals both are borne at distal end of the calyx tube
Standard petal is light yellow to
deep orange or rarely white

Wing is usually the same colour

as standard

Style is contained within the

calyx tube and both calyx tube and
style elongate rapidly upto 5 – 7 cm
in 24 hours prior to anthesis

Androecium monodelphous - the

staminal tube bearing five oblong
and five globular anthers
Filaments are fused for two thirds of their
length
Among the globular anthers: two are
sterile
Number usually varies in different varieties

In erect types: Sterile anthers are more

common while it may be absent in
spreading types
Anthesis
Flowering starts about 25-30 days after
seedling emergence

Dehiscence of the anthers takes place from 4

to 5 a.m. and flowers open from 5.30 to 7.30
a.m

Pollen matures 6-8 hours before anthesis

Self pollination occurs because the stigma and anthers are enclosed by the
keel

Cross pollination (ranging 0 to 6.16%) also occurs through bees

Stigma is receptive before anthesis

Pollination takes place at or near the time of anthesis

Emasculation
Emasculation of groundnut can be accomplished on warm bright days from
1.30 p.m. to 4.30 p.m.
Steps for emasculation
Select well developed bud for emasculation and remove all other buds at the
node to ensure that only one flower develops at that node

Pull the leaf down gently to expose the bud

With one hand hold the bud between your thumb and index finger

Open the standard petal with the forceps and pull down the wing petals

Keel is pulled down and held out of the way with the thumb and index finger
while all anthers along with their filaments are removed
Now return the standard petal to its original position over the stigma

Usually no attempt is made to cover the emasculated flowers for protection

from outside pollen

A small thread is put on the hypanthium of the emasculated flowers for

identification or on the stem above the bud axis

Use different coloured threads on different days to identify emasculated

buds for pollination

A record of the number of buds emasculated should be maintained for each

plant
Pollination
On the morning after emasculation the standard petal is usually expanded and
the stigma is exposed between 6.00 to 7.30 a.m

A healthy flower from the male parent is selected

Its corolla is removed exposing the anthers and pollen

Now directly squeeze the pollen on to the emasculated flower stigma or on to

the forceps and transfer the pollen from the forceps to the stigma of an
emasculated flower

After pollination: remove all the other flowers that were not hand pollinated by
breaking their hypanthium near the base
 When fertilization is successful the tissue below the ovary called the
gynophores elongates into a peg carrying the ovary at its tip geotropically
into the soil

In the soil the ovary takes a horizontal position and a pod develops

 Mature pods can be harvested usually 55- 65 days after the pegs
developed
Sesame - Sesamum indicum [2n = 26]
It is an erect annual herb with quadrangular stem and
heteromorphic leaves

Floral biology
Flower arise from leaf axils as solitary structure or
rarely in groups of 2-3 with short pedicel

Two nectary glands are seen at the base of the fully developed flower
Calyx is five lobed and membranous

Corolla is campanulate or tubular and bilabiate two lipped – the upper

lip of two lobes and the lower lip of three lobes

Ring of hairs are seen on the throat of the corolla

Stamens - 4: Epipetalous and didynamous

Gynoecium is with bicarpellary superior ovary.
Mostly tetralocular some times 6-10 locules are seen with many
ovules
Anthesis
On a bright clear day the flowers open between 5 and 7 a.m

In the mature flower bud: just before the flower opens - the four unripe anthers
are much below the stigma which at this stage is not receptive

Anthers begin to burst longitudinally after 4 a.m in the next day and commence
to liberate their pollen

At this time: the stigma becomes receptive

The plant comes to flowering 4 weeks after sowing

Selfing
Though sesame is considered generally as a self-pollinated crop - cross
pollination upto 65 per cent was reported

Hence - often cross pollinated - Cross pollination may occur due to wind and
bee activities

Tying with thread: Selfing can be effected by tying the corolla of the unopened
flower which is selected in the previous day evening itself

Smearing of semi-solid clay: Selfing can be done by smearing a speck of

semi-solid clay on the upper portion of tubular petals of unopened flowers

Clay while on drying does not allow the tubular petals to open
This method is cheap and less time consuming one - Not effective during rainy
days
During rainy day fevicol may be applied on young flower bud to ensure selfing

Crossing
i. Soda- straw method
Emasculation technique in sesame is
easy for crossing due to epipetalous nature
of the stamens

Flower bud which is expected to open in the next day morning is selected in the
previous day evening between 3 p.m.. and 6 p.m and emasculated by just
removing the corolla tube in which the stamens are attached
 Then the emasculated flower buds are covered with a piece of soda-straw
tube bent at the top in order to avoid contamination from foreign pollen

During the next day morning between 7 and 9 a.m pollen from the desired
male parents are dusted gently on the surface of the stigmas of the
emasculated flower buds after removing the soda-straw and again covered

The un-emasculated flowers are removed in the female parent

Individual crossed flowers are tagged with coloured thread for the
identification of crossed capsules

Different coloured threads are used for different types of crosses

ii. Hand emasculation method
A longitudinal slit is made on the corolla tube on the dilated side and all the
anthers are removed

The bud is then covered – it is usually done on the previous day evening

After emasculation: next day early morning artificial pollination is done and
the straw or cover is retained for two days

The capsules are covered with cloth bags for collecting seeds before the
dehiscence
Sunflower - Helianthus annuus [2n = 34]
Cultivated sunflower is distinguished from others by its single stem and large
inflorescence
Branched types also occur in commercial fields and are often used as male
parents in the hybrid seed production

Floral Biology
The inflorescence is
heterogamous capitulum or head

Head generally show a

phenomenon called “Heliotropism”
in which the developed heads face
East in the morning follow the
movement of the sun and in the
evening face west
Head is surrounded by an involucre of bracts
It contains two types of florets: ray florets and disc florets

The florets of outer whorl are called ray florets and the other flowers
arranged in concentric rings over the remainder of the head are called
disc florets

Ray florets have vestigial styles and stigmas and no anthers.

Disc florets are bisexual

Stamens 5 - syngenesious anthers (anthers are attached but filaments are
free)
Ovary is single, inferior, bifid stigma, single ovule on basal placentation
Anthesis
Sunflower is highly cross pollinated
crop mainly through insects
(Entomophily)

Flower opening starts from outer side

of the head and proceeds towards
centre

Head takes 5-10 days for complete blooming depending on size of head

Anthesis occurs between 5 and 8 a.m. and Pollen viable for 12 hours

Stigma is receptive for 2-3 days

The staminal filaments elongate rapidly and the anthers appear above the top
of the corolla

 Anthers dehisce early than maturity of stigma (Protoandry)

Selfing
The unopened heads are selected and covered with muslin bag

Crossing
i. Hand Emasculation
Emasculation is done in the early morning by removing the anthers of the disc
florets in 2 to 3 whorls with forceps and the other florets in the head are removed

About 9-10 a.m the pollen from desired male parent are collected and dusted on
the emasculated head

This process is continued for 2 to 3 days

 ii. Without emasculation
In sunflower head emasculation is difficult

Considering this difficulty - the heads are pollinated without emasculation

On the basis of hybrid vigour - plants are distinguished from the selfed
plants

The presence of marker genes for identifying hybrids is also utilized
effectively

iii. Chemical induction of male sterility

This achieved by spraying of 100ppm GA (Gametocide) during bud-initiation
stage consecutively for three days in the morning
Pollination
Pollination is carried out by collecting pollen from heads which are already bagged
prior to flowering

Pollen may be collected from flowering heads into paper bags by a light tap of
the hand on the base of the head.

Pollination is done in the morning by applying the freshly collected pollen by a

small piece of cotton, a hair brush or through fine cloth bag

After each cross: care must be taken to avoid contamination by wiping the hands
with alcohol
Floral Biology, Anthesis, Pollination,
Selfing and Crossing techniques in
Cotton, Jute and Mesta
Cotton
Species of cotton under cultivation are:
Diploid cotton
1. Gossypium arboreum L. (Karunganni cotton) 2n=2x=26
2. Gossypium herbaceum L. (Uppam cotton) 2n=2x=26

Tetraploid cotton
3. Gossypium hirsutum L. (American cotton) 2n=4x=52
4. Gossypium barbadense L. (Egyptian cotton) 2n=4x=52
Cotton is herbaceous annual grown in tropical and sub-tropical
regions

Branches are dimorphic in nature - lower zone (nodes) having

vegetative branches (monopodial braches) and the upper zone with
fruiting branches (sympodial branches)
Floral Biology
Flowers simple, solitary, yellowish to cream
in colour

Epicalyx 3, deeply serrated and persistent

They completely enclose and protect the tender growing flower parts called
squares

Calyx 5, corolla 5,
white or yellow or red in
colour
 The petals turn pink or red the day after pollination and later fall from
the plant

Anthers are numerous and reniform

Ovary superior, penta carpellary with 3-5 lobed stigma.

Ovules many in axile placentation
 Anthesis
In cotton, flowering starts from the base and proceeds towards the tip
(i.e. acropetal and centrifugal).

It takes 21-25 days for the flowers to open after the recognition of
squares.

The time of anthesis is between 8 and 10 a.m. The flowers will remain
opened till evening.

Pollen is shed directly on the stigma when the anthers open and hence
self pollination is the rule.
 In cotton, the stigma is receptive for 7 hours while the pollen
viability is upto 24 hours.

Fertilization is completed in 36 to 40 hours after pollination. But

cross pollination to the extent of 5-30 % is possible by insects,
mostly honey bees.

Hence cotton is classified as often cross pollinated crop.

Selfing
•Sealing method
A mature flower bud is selected and the corolla is tied with a piece of thread.
In order to keep the threads in position, a bit of wet clay is applied over the
knot, which will avoid contamination of the stigmatic surface by foreign
pollen.
•Paper cover method
A small paper cover is put over the mature flower bud before anthesis and
kept for 2-3 days.
 Hybridisation
Emasculation
The corolla is cut away with small scissors or a curved scalpel and the
anthers are removed or a narrow cut is made at the lower portion of flower
bud and corolla is carefully peeled off along with staminal column.

Care should be taken not to injure the ovary. After emasculation, cover
the flowers with paper covers.
 •Scrapping method
A mature flower bud is selected from which the corolla is removed by making
a circular cut at the base.

Then the anthers are scrapped off with a forceps or scalpel by holding the
flower in horizontal position.

The emasculated flower is protected with a cover and in the next morning
artificial crossing is done by crushing mature anthers collected from the chosen
male parent on the stigmatic surface of the female parent.
 •Soda straw method
The upper part of the corolla is removed from the mature flower bud by
making a circular cut at the top.
Then a small piece of soda straw is inserted over the stigma, so that the
stigmatic region is separated from the anthers.
The tip of the straw is bent to close the opening.
Next day morning, a few mature anthers collected from the male parent are
crushed and dropped into the soda straw and cross-pollination is effected.
 •Doak’s method
Emasculation is done by removing the staminal column by giving a shallow
cut at the base of the bud with thumb nail and removing corolla and anther
column in one jerk twisting action.

Emasculation is done in the evening usually a day before flower opening.

Immediately after emasculation the flower is covered with colour butter

paper bag for easy identification on the next day morning.

Pollen from the male flower is dusted on the emasculated flower by rubbing
the staminal column of male parent.
Immediately after pollination the flower is covered with white
butter paper bag and proper labelling is also done.

Pollination is usually done a day after emasculation.

•Surat method
This method is useful for emasculation of diploid flowers where the top
portion of flower bud is pinched off using thumb and first finger nails by hand so
that the tip of stigma get slightly exposed and the bud is covered with mud.

As the buds mature, the stigma tip extend sufficiently for enabling pollination.

In genotypes where stigma tip excertion is comparatively low, instead of

cutting the top portion of corolla, the entire corolla is removed and lint dipped in
mud is applied on unopened anther sacs.
The pollen is applied next day morning (Mehta et al., 1983).

It is an easy method of emasculation for diploid flowers though chances

are there for selfed seed production.

Hence production of hybrids with high genetic purity (90%) cannot be

guaranted.
Floral Biology, Anthesis, Pollination, Selfing
and Crossing techniques in other oilseed
crops
SAFFLOWER - Carthamus tinctorius (2n=24)
Related species
The genus Carthamus contains about 25 valid species but only one
Carthamus tinctorius is commercially cultivated
C. palaestinus, C. oxycantha and C. creticus have basic fatty acid
composition similar to cultivated safflower
C. lanatus is resistant to rust and C. palaestinus is used as source of
dormancy
Floral Biology:
The flowers are borne terminally on the main stem, primary
branches, secondary branches and tertiary branches (if present)

These flowers consist of a group of small individual flowers

called florets

All these florets are collectively known as inflorescence

Head or Capitilum homogamous:

outer involucral bracts ovate – oblong

inner involucral bracts oblong-

acute
Florets are tubular, light yellow to orange red in colour,
hermaphrodite, bracts and bracteoles of each floret modified into thin
soft hairs
Calyx absent, corolla long, tubular, stamens five, epipetalous,
syngenesious
Ovary inferior, bicarpellary, single celled, single ovuled, basal or
ascending in placentation sometimes a few of the marginal florets are
sterile
Hand emasculation
Healthy capitula of the parental plants to be emasculated are chosen and
are bagged before any florets are opened and labeled on their penduncle

A day before anthesis the head is cleared by removing upper envelope of

the involucral bracts in order to expose the young florets

The anther tube surrounding the stigma and style is carefully

punctured at the bottom and a long narrow cut is given vertically and the
entire anther column along with the surrounding corolla is removed.
During the operation some pollen grains may adhere on the style region
which are immediately brushed off and washed by a jet of water

A convenient number of florets are emasculated, washed and examined

with a lens for any sticking pollen and then the capitulum is bagged

These emasculated florets are hand-pollinated on the next morning with

the pollen from desired plant when fresh pollen is available and the head is
again bagged
NIGER - Guizotia abyssinica (2n=2x=30)
Related species:
The genus Guizotia comprises of six species:
G. abyssinica
G. scabra
G. arborescens
G. reptans
G. villosa
G. zavattarii
Floral Structure
The inflorescence of niger is capitula or head with two types of florets:
ray florets and disc florets

The flowers develop from leaf axils in clusters of 2 to 5 capitula

(heads)
The capitulum consists of eight to 15 sterile ray florets on the periphery
of the capitulum

They are sessile,

zygomorphic, unisexual,
pistillate, ligulae, epigynous and
yellow
 The ray florets are generally female but often neutral and yellow to
orange colour for attracting insects for pollination

Disc florets: hermaphrodite, usually 45 – 65 per capitulum arranged

in three circular whorls in centripetal order from periphery

They are sessile, bisexual, complete, actinomorphic, epigynous,

corolla, gamopetalous, pale yellow tubular

Consists of 5 petals fused together

forming tube like structure with a distinct
upper section surrounding the style and
stamens and lower section surrounding
the ovary
 Androecium: five stamens which are epipetalous, syngenesious
with long filament and basifixed anthers

Anthesis and pollination

Highly cross pollinated crop - entomophillous
It is protrandrous with sporophytic self incompatibility
The opening of flower starts from the outer whorl first and the
process continues inward towards center of the floret
Unfurling of ray florets is visible with flowering proceeding
concentrically over a period of 8 days
For complete flowering of the crop minimum 8 to 12 days is
required
Selfing
Selfing is a difficult process in niger
Very high inbreeding depression upto 91% is observed
When flower initiation takes place: the selfing or sib mating is done by
covering two or more representative adjacent plants in a line by muslin
cloth bag or nylon mosquito net bags to exclude the insects
The shaking of bags or bagged plants is done on alternate days to
ensure pollination at maturity
Crossing (Sujatha and Angadi, 1989)
The disc floret of female parent is selected
In the disc floret stamens are epipetalous and syngenesious.
At the time of opening of flower around 8 am: the disc florets appear
swollen and turn yellow.
The anther column becomes more conspicuous with white tip.
At this stage: the white tip of anther is pulled out with quick jerk using a
fine tweezer without splitting the anther column and without damaging
the stigma
The emasculated floret is pollinated immediately with pollen
The pollinated disc floret is then bagged. After seed set the bag is
removed
Isolation distance is one kilometer for niger
MUSTARD (Brassica sp.)
 In Asian countries: the commonly grown rapeseed-mustard belongs to five
different species of Brassica and one species Eruca sativa

Only [Link] is grown for condiment purpose and the other five are oil
yielding types
 Species Form /variety Common name Chromosome Mode of
number pollination
[Link] - Black mustard 16 Cross
[Link] [Link] Annua Summer turnip rape 20 Cross
Biennis Winter turnip rape 20 Cross
Toria Indian rape 20 Cross
Yellow sarson Rapeseed 20 Self
Brown sarson Brown sarson 20
-tora type Self
-lotni type Cross
Eruca sativa - Rocket, taramira 22 Cross
[Link] - Rai, brown or oriental 36 Cross
mustard
[Link] - Ethiopian mustard, 34 Cross
Abyssinian mustard
[Link] L. ssp. annua Summer rape 38 Self
oleifera biennis Winter rape 38 Self
Selfing
Selfing is usually carried out by enclosing a flowering branch in a muslin
cloth bag in case of amphidiploids species which are self compatible (self
pollinated too)

In case of self incompatible diploid species: selfing is done mostly by bud
pollination
Crossing
A flowering branch whose open flowers / young pods have been
removed is bagged by muslin cloth bag

 After a few days the bag is removed temporarily and pollen from
freshly opened flowers is applied on the stigma of young buds which
are preferably emasculated

The self-incompatibility in Brassica is of sporophytic homomorphic

type under monofactorial polyallelic series where pollen is inhibited on
the stigma
Techniques for temporary break down of self incompatibility (De
Nettancourt, 1972)

Bud pollination
Delayed self-pollination
Grafting
Heat – shocks

Application of CO2
Hormones and protein inhibitors
Chronic irradiation
Acute irradiation of styles
Acute irradiation of PMC
Castor [Ricinus communis - 2n =2x= 20]

Origin: Africa

Castor is tall, annual or perennial growing shrub with palmately lobed

leaves with serrated margin
Inflorescence : Monoecious - flowers in a terminal panicle with female flowers in

the upper part and male flowers at the base

Male flower - perianth five - stamens many

Female flower - ovary superior, tricarpellary, style short and branched trifid or bifid
COCONUT [Cocos nucifera] (2n=32)

Origin: Indo Pacific region

Coconut belongs to a monotypic genus Cocos, with a

single species nucifera and hence there is restricted
genetic base with no known wild or domesticated
relatives.

There are two types

1. Tall coconut (Cocos nucifera var. typica)
2. Dwarf coconut (Cocos nucifera var. nana)
Inflorescence : Compound spike, young inflorescence

enclosed in spathe, hence called as spadix.

Spadix long, stout, but later drooping branched.

More pistillate inflorescence at the tip.

Flowers are monoecious staminate flowers have bracteole, 6
perianths in two whorls, 3 in each outer perianth are shorter.
Male flowers : Stamens 6, anthers linear, dorsifixed, erect, filament short,
pistil rudimentary
Female flowers : Two bracteoles, sepals six in two whorls persistent,

ovary large, tricarpellary, syncarpous unilocular, two of three the

carpels aborted. Three sessile stigmas.

Pollination : Cross pollinated.

There are three botanical varieties of Cocos nucifera: '
Tall - Cocos nucifera var. typica:
Hardy type with the life span of 80 to 90 years. It has long and straight trunk
growing to a height of about 15 to 18 meters

The nuts mature within a period of 12 months after pollination. The copra, oil
and fibre are of good quality

Variety is cross pollinated - male flowers open first and female flowers are
receptive one week after male flowers open

Eg: West coast call, East coast tall, Kappadam, Andaman Giant, Laccadive
Ordinary.
Semi tall - Cocos nucifera var. javanica: This is self pollinated because of
overlapping of male and female phases.

Dwarf type - Cocos nucifera var. nana:

Characterized by its short stature and

earliness in bearing. Life span is less than

tall. The endosperm not suitable for oil

extraction. Self pollination because of

overlapping of male and female phases.

Eg. Chowghat dwarf, Gangabondam

Hybrid palm: The promising hybrid combinations are Tall x Dwarf and
Dwarf x Tall. Hybrids come to flower in four years and perform better in
productivity in form of number of nuts per palm and uniformity in bearing.

Tapping for toddy or sugar: Tapping in coconut is performed in the

inflorescence before the flowers fully develop. The fresh tapped juice is the
neera (padhaneer), and when allowed to ferment it is the toddy and when
fresh juice is evaporated, yields unrefined sugar known as jaggery