Atomic
Theory
A Brief History
Atoms are made up of subatomic
particles called protons, neutrons
and electrons
How do we know that?
Vocabulary
Atom: The smallest unit of an element,
having all the characteristics of that element
and consisting of a dense, central, positively
charged nucleus surrounded by a system of
electrons.
Molecule: The smallest particle of a
substance that retains the chemical and
physical properties of the substance and is
composed of two or more atoms.
Compound: A compound is a substance
made up of atoms representing more than
one element bonded together and exhibiting
distinct physical and chemical characteristics
Example: H2O, H2SO4
Background
Law of Conservation of Mass (Lavoisier, 1789)
During a chemical reaction, the total mass of the
reactants is equal to the total mass of the
products.
Law of Definite Proportions (Proust, 1799)
When atoms combine to form compounds, they
always combine in the same simple, small whole
number proportions.
Example: Water is always H2O
Example: Sulfuric Acid is always H 2SO4
Aristotle
(circa. 400 B.C.)
Matter is not made of particles, but rather is
continuous.
The continuous matter is called “hyle.”
There were only four elements
Earth, Air, Fire, Water
Democritus
(circa. 400 B.C.)
Matter is made of empty space and
tiny particles called “atoms.”
Atoms are indivisible.
There are different types of atoms for
each material in the world.
Why was Democritus Ignored?
Because the early Greek
philosophers did not experiment
and because Aristotle was an
established teacher and because
the church was opposed to “soul
atoms”, the views of Democritus
were not accepted until the 19th
century.
Pre-Atomic Theory Postulates
Law of Conservation of Mass
During a chemical reaction, the total mass of the
reactants is equal to the total mass of the
products.
Law of Definite Proportions
When atoms combine to form compounds, they
always combine in the same simple, small whole
number proportions.
Example: Water is always H2O
Example: Sulfuric Acid is always H 2SO4
John Dalton
(early 1803)
Matter consists of tiny particles called atoms
which are indivisible and indestructible.
All atoms of a particular element are identical.
Atoms of different elements differ in mass and
properties.
Atoms combine in whole number ratios to form
compound atoms.
In chemical reactions, atoms are combined,
separated, or rearranged but are never created,
destroyed, or changed
Why were Dalton’s views accepted?
The scientific method is now the proper way to
“do science.”
Dalton’s theory was based on experimental
observations: the law of Conservation of Mass
and the law of Definite Proportions.
Dalton’s theory correctly predicted the outcome
of future experiments. These predictions
became the law of Multiple Proportions.
The Dalton Atom
John Dalton examined the empirical
proportions of elements that made up
chemical compounds.
At this stage, the atom was still seen as an
indivisible object, with no internal structure.
Amedo Avogadro
Avogadro, among other achievements, was
able to explain the existence of diatomic
molecules.
Avogadro’s Law: Equal volumes of any gas at
the same temperature and pressure, have the
same number of particles.
1 mole = 22.4 Liters
J.J. Thomson set up a crookes
tube with a anodic and cathodic
ends
When electricity was applied to the tube, a
beam was emitted from the cathodic (-) plate
Thomson then assumed the particles
emitted were negative
To test this theory, he applied a magnetic
field to the tube and “bent” the beam
What happens with like charges?
He tested the tube further by applying an
electrical field to the tube using paddles
The tube turned around
Thomson determined that the tube turned as
tiny particles hit the paddles
Demonstration
Molecular Expressions: Electricity and Magne
tism - Interactive Java Tutorials: Crookes Tub
e
He concluded that the particles in the tube
were negatively charged and had mass
mass = 9.109 x 10-31kg
Since these particles are negatively charged,
but the atoms are neutral, there must be other
particles in an atom
Problem: This requires too many electrons!
Thomson Model
The discovery of the electron by J. J.
Thomson showed that atoms did have some
kind of internal structure.
The Thomson model of the atom described
the atom as a "pudding" of positive charge,
with negatively charged electrons embedded
J.J. Thomson’s Plum Pudding
Model
Positively
charged
“pudding”
Negatively
charged particles
later named
electrons
Thom
son
movie
Milliken and the Oil Droplet
In 1909, Robert Milliken performed an
experiment using droplets of oil to determine
the charge of an electron.
electrons, e, e-, -1.602 x 10-19C
Ernest Rutherford conducted experiments to
test the Thomson model
He directed alpha particles through a thin
gold foil and measured them with a film
Most particles went through the foil
•But, some were deflected, Why?
Rutherford’s Hypothesis
England, 1911
Rutherford hypothesized that the particles
were travelling through a void and
occasionally bouncing off a concentrated
positive charge.
Conclusion
There must be a dense region with positive
charges surrounded by the electrons
An atom is mostly empty space with a dense
region in the middle.
This dense region is called the “nucleus”
He measured the number of particles deflected
and the angles and calculated that the radius of
the nucleus was 1/10,000 of the whole atom
Problem: Electrons should spiral into the
nucleus.
Let there be protons!
The discovery was made and protons were
recognized
The mass of a proton is 2000x the mass of an
electron
1.673 x 10-27 kg
We’re not done yet ...
30 years later, Irene Curie, the daughter of
the great Madame Curie, produced a beam of
particles that could go through almost
anything
And James Chadwick determined this beam
was not affected by a magnetic field (no
charge!)
Neutrons were given credit
Coulomb’s Law
Since like charges repel, how can the
nucleus be stable with protons (+) and
neutrons (0)?
Coulomb’s Law: the closer two charges are,
the greater the force between them
As the distance between like charges
decreases, the force between them
increases.
Try it!
Problems with Rutherford’s model
According to classical physics, an electron in
orbit around an atomic nucleus should emit
photons continuously as they are accelerating
in a curved path.
The loss of energy should cause the electron
to collide with the nucleus and collapse the
atom.
Elemental Quandary
The Rutherford model was unable to explain
the difference in the visible spectrum for each
element.
Visible-line Spectrum
When an elemental gas is excited by
electricity, it emits a distinct visible light
pattern.
The color of each spectral line is identified by
the wavelength ()
Electromagnetic Spectrum
All of the frequencies or wavelengths of
electromagnetic radiation.
Wavelength
The wavelength is the distance between
repeating units of a wave pattern (λ) and
measured in nm
Frequency
Frequency is the measurement of the
number of times that a repeated event occurs
per unit of time (Hz)
The blue wave has the greatest frequency.
Hydrogen
Carbon
Oxygen
Xenon
Compare these spectrum
•Hydrogen, Carbon, Oxygen and Xenon
In comes Niels Bohr
Denmark, 1913
In 1913, Bohr proposed that electrons were
restricted to certain fixed circular orbits.
Orbits are energy levels
Electrons can jump from ground state to an
excited state by absorbing energy or a photon
with the precise wavelength.
Neils Bohr
(early 1900’s)
Electrons travel around the nucleus in specific
energy levels.
Electrons have a ground state and an excited
state
Electrons do not radiate energy in their normal
energy level called the ground state.
Electrons absorb energy and move to energy
levels further from the nucleus called excited
states.
Electrons lose energy (light) as they return to
lower energy levels.
The Bohr Atom
Excited States
-
+
Ground
Nucleus State
The Bohr Planetary Atomic Model
The Bohr Atom
In the Bohr Model the neutrons
and protons occupy a dense
central region called the
nucleus, and the electrons
orbit the nucleus much like
planets orbiting the Sun
The Modern Atom
The modern atom is further defined by the
works of these scientists:
de Broglie
Max Plank
Albert Einstein
Heisenberg
Erwin Schrodinger
Problems with the Planetary Model
This model only works for Hydrogen
Max Plank
Germany, 1918
Energy is gained or lost in discrete
“packets” called quanta
Calculated the amount of energy
and determined that it is a constant
Plank’s Constant
hv
Founded quantum mechanics theory
He was also an accomplished
musician!
de Broglie, 1924
Electrons move like waves and so have
properties of waves.
Albert Einstein
Einstein was simultaneously working on the
photoelectric effect, the theory of relativity
and the energy-mass relationship.
Heisenberg, 1925
Heisenberg proposed that it is not possible to
know the position and momentum of an
electron at the same time.
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
Erwin Schrödinger
Austria, 1920’s
Electrons have characteristics associated
with waves and particles; wave-particle
duality.
Electrons are located around the nucleus
in “orbitals”
An orbital is a probability that an electron
will be there
4 quantum numbers indicate the
probable location of the electron wave.
Schrödinger Wave Equation
2/x2 + 2/y2 + 2/z2 + 82m/h2(E-V)=0
(E-V) = 2 2me4/h2n2
The equation predicts the orbital
The Modern Atomic View
The Wave-Mechanical Model
Another View
The Theory
No two electrons can have the same
quantum number (Pauli Exclusion Principle)
No two electrons can occupy the same space
at the same time
A quantum number is an address of the
electron
Electrons exist in orbitals around the nucleus
Let’s Review
The Dalton Atom
John Dalton examined the empirical
proportions of elements that made up
chemical compounds.
At this stage, the atom was still seen as an
indivisible object, with no internal structure.
Thomson Model
The discovery of the electron by J. J.
Thomson showed that atoms did have some
kind of internal structure.
The Thomson model of the atom described
the atom as a "pudding" of positive charge,
with negatively charged electrons embedded
Rutherford Model
The Rutherford model described the atom
made up of a dense nucleus of
approximately containing positively charged
particles, surrounded by an electron cloud of
approximately.
“Nuclear Model”
Niels Bohr
The Bohr Model is probably familar as the
"planetary model" of the atom, the figure is
used as a symbol for atomic energy
The neutrons and protons occupy a dense
central region called the nucleus, and the
electrons orbit the nucleus much like
planets orbiting the Sun
Max Plank •Father of Quantum Physics
•Electrons absorb and emit
energy in discrete “packets”
called quanta
Erwin Schrödinger
Electrons exist in specific orbitals and are
assigned separate quantum numbers
Summary
The model of the atom changed over time.
How? What? When? Where? Why?
Get into your study groups and each student
answer a different question.
Write your responses on the bottom of your
notes page.