REPRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION:

• Reproductive system ensures the continuation of species.

• Gonads are the primary reproductive organs which produce the
gametes (sperm and egg or ovum); a pair of testes (singular = testis)
produces sperms in males and a pair of ovaries produces ovum in
females.
• In humans and most of the higher animals, reproduction occurs
sexually, i.e. by mating. However, there are some species like insects
which can produce offspring without mating.
• MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM:

Reproductive organs include:

1. Primary sex organs 2. Accessory sex organs

1. Primary Sex Organs

Testes are the primary sex organs or gonads in males.

2. Accessory Sex Organs

Accessory sex organs in males are:
1. Seminal vesicles 2. Prostate gland 3. Urethra 4. Penis
• The organs of the male reproductive system are specialized for three
primary functions:

1. To produce, maintain, transport, and nourish sperm (the male

reproductive cells), and protective fluid ( semen ).
2. To discharge sperm within the female reproductive tract.
3. To produce and secrete male sex hormones.
FUNCTIONS OF TESTES
• Testes perform two functions:
1. Gametogenic function: Spermatogenesis
2. Endocrine function: Secretion of hormones
GAMETOGENIC FUNCTIONS OF TESTES –
SPERMATOGENESIS
Spermatogenesis is the process by which the male gametes called
spermatozoa (sperms) are formed from the primitive spermatogenic cells
(spermatogonia) in the testis.
It takes 74 days for the formation of sperm from a primitive germ cell.
STAGES OF SPERMATOGENESIS
• Spermatogenesis occurs in four stages:
1. Stage of proliferation
2. Stage of growth
3. Stage of maturation
4. Stage of transformation
1. STAGE OF PROLIFERATION
• Each spermatogonium contains diploid number (23 pairs) of
chromosomes. One member of each pair is from maternal origin and
the other one from paternal origin. The 23 pairs include 22 pairs of
autosomal chromosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes. Sex
chromosomes are one X chromosome and one Y chromosome.
• During the proliferative stage, spermatogonia divide by mitosis,
without any change in chromosomal number. In man, there are usually
seven generations of spermatogonia. The last generation enters the
stage of growth as primary spermatocyte
2. STAGE OF GROWTH
In this stage, the primary spermatocyte grows into a large cell. Apart
from growth, there is no other change in spermatocyte during this stage.
3. STAGE OF MATURATION
After reaching the full size, each primary spermatocyte quickly
undergoes meiotic or maturation division, which occurs in two phases:
First phase
In the first phase, each primary spermatocyte divides into two secondary
spermatocytes. The significance of the first meiotic division is that each
secondary spermatocyte receives only the haploid or half the number of
chromosomes. 23 chromosomes include 22 autosomes and a X or a Y
chromosome.
Second phase
During this phase, each secondary spermatocyte undergoes second
meiotic division, resulting in two smaller cells called spermatids. Each
spermatid has haploid number of chromosomes.
4. STAGE OF TRANSFORMATION
• There is no further division. Spermatids are transformed into matured
spermatozoa (sperms), by means of spermeogenesis and released by
spermination.
• ENDOCRINE FUNCTIONS OF TESTES
• HORMONES SECRETED BY TESTES
• Testes secrete male sex hormones, which are collectively called the
androgens. Androgens secreted by testes are:
1. Testosterone
2. Dihydrotestosterone
3. Androstenedione
• Among these three androgens, testosterone is secreted in large quantities.
However, dihydrotestosterone is more active. Female sex hormones, namely
estrogen and progesterone are also found in testes. Two more hormones
activin and inhibin are also secreted in testes. However, these two hormones
do not have androgenic actions.
• FUNCTIONS OF TESTOSTERONE
In general, testosterone is responsible for the distinguishing characters of
masculine body. It also plays an important role in fetal life.
• Functions of Testosterone in Fetal Life
Testosterone performs three functions in fetus:
1. Sex differentiation in fetus
2. Development of accessory sex organs
3. Descent of the testes.
Functions of Testosterone in Adult Life
Testosterone has two important functions in adult:
1. Effect on sex organs
2. Effect on secondary sexual characters.
1. Effect on sex organs
Testosterone increases the size of penis, scrotum and the testes after puberty.
All these organs are enlarged at least 8 folds between the onset of puberty
and the age of 20 years, under the influence of testosterone. Testosterone is
also necessary for spermatogenesis.
2. Effect on secondary sexual characters
Secondary sexual characters are the physical and behavioral
• characteristics that distinguish the male from female. These characters
appear at the time of puberty in humans. Testosterone is responsible
for the development of secondary sexual characters in males.
Secondary sexual characters in males:
i. Effect on muscular growth
• One of the most important male sexual characters is the development
of musculature after puberty. Muscle mass increases by about 50%,
due to the anabolic effect of testosterone on proteins. Testosterone
accelerates the transport of amino acids into the muscle cells, synthesis
of proteins and storage of proteins. Testosterone also decreases the
breakdown of proteins.
ii. Effect on bone growth
• After puberty, testosterone increases the thickness of bones by
increasing the bone matrix and deposition of calcium.
It is because of the protein anabolic activity of testosterone. Deposition of
calcium is secondary to the increase in bone matrix.
iii. Effect on shoulder and pelvic bones
Testosterone causes broadening of shoulders and it has a specific effect on
pelvis.

iv. Effect on skin

Testosterone increases the thickness of skin and ruggedness of subcutaneous
tissue. These changes in skin are due to the deposition of proteins in skin. It
also increases the quantity of melanin pigment, which is responsible for the
deepening of the skin color. Testosterone enhances the secretory activity of
sebaceous glands. So, at the time of puberty, when the body is exposed to
sudden increase in testosterone secretion, the excess secretion of sebum leads
to development of acne on the face. After few years, the skin gets adapted to
testosterone secretion and the acne disappears.
v. Effect on hair distribution
Testosterone causes male type of hair distribution on the body, i.e. hair
growth over the pubis, along linea alba up to umbilicus, on face, chest
and other parts of the body such as back and limbs. Testosterone
decreases the hair growth on the head and may cause baldness, if there
is genetic background.
vi. Effect on voice
At the time of adolescence, the boys have a cracking voice. Later, the
cracking voice changes gradually into a typical adult male voice with a
bossing sound.
vii. Effect on basal metabolic rate
At the time of puberty and earlier part of adult life, the testosterone
increases the basal metabolic rate to about 5% to 10% by its anabolic
effects on protein metabolism.
viii. Effect on electrolyte and water balance
Testosterone increases the sodium reabsorption from renal tubules,
along with water reabsorption. It leads to increase in ECF volume.
ix. Effect on blood
Testosterone has got erythropoietic action. So, after puberty,
testosterone causes mild increase in RBC count. It also increases the
blood volume by increasing the water retention and ECF volume.