Functional Anatomy and
Functions of the Ear
• The ear contains receptors called hair cells for two important sensations:
hearing and equilibrium.
• Anatomically, the ear is divided into three parts:
• the external (outer) ear,
• the middle ear
• the internal (inner ear).
• The inner ear houses both the organ for hearing (the auditory apparatus or
cochlea) and the organ for equilibrium (the vestibular apparatus).
• The external ear, middle ear and the cochlea of the inner ear are components
of the hearing system.
• The vestibular apparatus consisting of the saccule, utricle and three
semicircular canals is concerned with the maintenance of body equilibrium
• Pinna
• The pinna is a flap of elastic cartilage covered by skin.
• In humans, the pinna is fixed, but in many animals, it is
movable, and can be oriented in the direction of sound.
• The rim of the auricle is called the helix
• The lower soft tissue portion is called the lobule.
• External Auditory Canal
• This canal (meatus) is a 2.5 cm long tube in the temporal
• bone extending from the auricle to the eardrum
• It conducts the sound waves to the middle ear.
• The external one-third of the canal is cartilaginous and the
• internal two-third is bony
MIDDLE EAR
• MIDDLE EAR
• The middle ear (tympanic cavity) is a rectangular airfilled
compartment in the temporal bone .
• It is lined by epithelial cells and has four walls, a floor and a roof.
• The anterior wall opens to the exterior via the eustachian tube at the
level of the nasopharynx
• The posterior wall communicates with the mastoid air cells (air
cavities in the mastoid process of the temporal bone) through a space
called the tympanic antrum.
• When infections of the middle ear spread to the mastoid air cells, they
cause mastoiditis.
• The medial wall contains two small membrane covered openings (the
oval window and the round window) and separates the middle ear
from the internal ear.
• The Auditory Ossicles
• These are three small bones, the malleus (hammer), the incus (anvil),
and the stapes (stirrup).
• They extend across the middle ear cavity, one joined to the other
• The footplate of the stapes is attached to the oval window (fenestra
vestibuli).
• The pressure waves travel through the ossicular chain and produce
vibrations of the footplate of stapes, which then transmits the
vibrations to the perilymph of the inner ear through oval window.
The middle ear
The middle ear muscles have the following functions.
They:
• i. Prevent the damage to the cochlea.
• ii. Improve sound transmission to the cochlea in the range of voice
communication while decreasing responses to frequencies above and
below this range.
• iii. Suppress the
• self-generated sounds
• Receives [Link] of sound waves to the inner ear through the
tympanic membrane and the ossicular chain. . Amplification of sound
waves
Eustachian Tube
• This connects the middle ear with the pharynx and equalizes the air
pressures on both sides of the tympanic membrane.
• This helps the membrane vibrate at the same frequency as the sound
waves.
• The pharyngeal end of the tube is normally closed by a valve-like
mechanism, but muscle movements open
During swallowing, yawning or sneezing, and the pressure in the
middle ear equilibrates with the atmospheric (pharyngeal cavity)
pressure
• INNER EAR
• The internal (inner) ear is situated in the petrous part of the temporal bone.
• It is called labyrinth due to presence of complicated series of canals.
• Structurally, it is divided into an outer bony labyrinth that houses an inner
membranous labyrinth.
• The bony labyrinth contains a fluid called perilymph that surrounds the
membranous labyrinth.
• The composition of perilymph is similar to that of cerebrospinal fluid.
• The membranous labyrinth is a series of fluid-filled membranous tubes and
sacs, which mimic the shape of bony labyrinth. The fluid present in the
membranous labyrinth is called endolymph that is rich in K+ and resembles
intracellular fluid.
• The membranous labyrinth consists of the auditory apparatus (cochlea) and the
vestibular apparatus (the saccule, utricle and the semicircular canals).
• The function of cochlea is transduction of the sound energy into action
• Cochlea
• The cochlea (meaning snail’s shell) is a snail shaped fluidfilled tube.
• It has an outer bony spiral canal that houses an inner membranous
cochlear duct.
• Membranous Cochlea
• The membranous cochlea (cochlear duct) is like a tube that follows the
spiral shape of bony cochlea.
• It is filled with endolymph and is part of the membranous labyrinth
• In the cross‑sectional view of the cochlea, the Reissner’s membrane
and the basilar membrane divide the cochlea into three fluid-filled
compartments known
scala vestibuli, scala media, and scala tympani
• The Organ of Corti
• The Organ of Corti or the spiral organ is the specialized structure located
on the basilar membrane containing the receptors for hearing, the hair
cells
• It consists of hair cells, the associated nerve terminals, supporting cells,
tunnel of Corti, basilar membrane, tectorial membrane and reticular
lamina.
Auditory Pathways
The primary auditory cortex (Brodmann’s area 41) located in the sylvian fissure, in the superior
portion of the temporal lobe.
Physiology of Smell
• The sense of smell is known as olfaction
• The olfactory system is the only sensory system that does not
relay in the thalamus on its way to the cortex.
• And, the olfactory system has asymmetric cortical
representation.
• Olfactory Epithelium
• The olfactory receptor cells are located in a specialized area of
the nasal mucosa lining the roof of the nasal cavity called the
olfactory epithelium or the olfactory mucus membrane.
• The olfactory epithelium contains 10–20 million receptor cells
interspersed between supporting cells and progenitor cells
Olfactory Nerves
The axons from the olfactory receptor cells gather into about twenty bundles
known as olfactory nerves, which pierce the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone
and enter the olfactory bulbs.
Olfactory Bulb
Above the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone, and below the orbital surface of
the frontal lobe on each side, the portion of the brain that projects forward is
known as the olfactory bulb.
Physiology of Smell:
[Link] Epithelium:
The process of smelling begins in the olfactory epithelium, a specialized tissue located in the upper part of the
nasal cavity. This epithelium contains millions of olfactory receptor neurons, which are the primary cells
responsible for detecting odors.
[Link] Receptor Neurons (ORNs):
Olfactory receptor neurons have specialized proteins called olfactory receptors on their surface. These receptors
can bind to specific odor molecules in the air.
[Link] Molecules:
When we inhale, odorant molecules from the environment enter the nasal cavity and dissolve in the mucus layer
covering the olfactory epithelium.
[Link] Signal Transduction:
When an odorant molecule binds to an olfactory receptor, it triggers a series of biochemical events within the
olfactory receptor neuron. This ultimately leads to the generation of an electrical signal.
[Link] Nerve:
The electrical signal travels along the olfactory nerve, also known as the first cranial nerve, towards the brain.
[Link] Bulb:
The olfactory nerve fibers synapse in the olfactory bulb, a structure located at the base of the brain. In the
olfactory bulb, the electrical signals from the olfactory receptor neurons are processed and relayed to other parts
[Link] Cortex:
The olfactory cortex, located in the temporal lobe of the brain, is responsible for processing and
interpreting the signals received from the olfactory bulb. This allows us to perceive and identify different
odors.
[Link] System:
The olfactory system is unique in that it has direct connections to the limbic system, which is involved in
emotions and memory. This is why smells can evoke strong emotional responses and trigger vivid
memories.
[Link]:
The olfactory system can adapt to prolonged exposure to odors, which is why we may not notice a
persistent smell after some time in a particular environment.
[Link]:
Anosmia is the loss of the sense of smell, which can occur due to various factors such as nasal
congestion, head trauma, or neurological conditions. It can have a significant impact on a person's
quality of life, as the sense of smell is closely linked to taste and can affect appetite and enjoyment of
food.
[Link] Environment: Various odor molecules from the external environment are inhaled through the nose.
[Link] Epithelium: These odor molecules interact with olfactory receptor neurons in the olfactory
epithelium, which contains specialized receptor cells.
[Link] Receptors: Olfactory receptors on the olfactory neurons bind to specific odor molecules, initiating
an electrical signal.
[Link] Nerve (CN I): The electrical signal travels along the olfactory nerve (cranial nerve I) towards the
brain.
[Link] Bulb: The olfactory nerve fibers synapse in the olfactory bulb, where the signal is processed.
[Link] Tract: From the olfactory bulb, the signal travels along the olfactory tract to other parts of the
brain, including the olfactory cortex and limbic system.
[Link] System: The limbic system, which is involved in emotions and memory, processes the olfactory
information, leading to emotional and memory responses to smells.
[Link] Cortex: The olfactory cortex further processes the information, allowing us to perceive and
identify different smells.
[Link]: The brain integrates the olfactory information with other sensory inputs, allowing for the perception of
complex smells and triggering appropriate behavioral responses.
External Environment -> Odor molecules inhaled through the nose
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Olfactory Epithelium -> Interaction with olfactory receptor neurons
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Olfactory Receptors -> Binding to specific odor molecules
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Olfactory Nerve (CN I) -> Transmission of electrical signal
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Olfactory Bulb -> Processing of signal
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Olfactory Tract -> Transmission of signal to other brain regions
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Limbic System & Olfactory Cortex -> Processing of smell, emotional and memory
responses
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Brain -> Integration with other sensory inputs, behavioral responses
ANOSMIA
• Anosmia refers to total loss of sensation of smell, i.e. inability to recognize or detect any
odor.
• It may be temporary or permanent.
• Temporary anosmia is due to obstruction of nose, which occurs during common cold, nasal
sinus and allergic conditions. Permanent anosmia occurs during lesion in olfactory tract,
meningitis and degenerative conditions such as Parkinson disease and Alzheimer disease.
HYPOSMIA
• Hyposmia is the reduced ability to recognize and to detect any odor.
• The odors can be detected only at higher concentrations.
• It is the most common disorder of smell. Hyposmia also may be temporary or permanent. It
occurs due to same causes of anosmia.
HYPEROSMIA
• Hyperosmia is the increased or exaggerated olfactory sensation.
• It is also called olfactory hyperesthesia. It occurs in brain injury, epilepsy and neurotic
conditions.
Physiology of Taste
• The sense of taste is known as gustation.
• Like smell, it is classified under visceral senses and the gustatory
receptors are chemoreceptors.
• Flavor of a food gives an intricate, rich and pleasurable sensory
experience by amalgamating many sensory inputs.
• Receptor Organs (Taste Buds)
• The receptor organs for taste are called taste buds that house the
chemoreceptors responsible for taste.
• They respond to gustatory stimuli (tastants) and mediate the taste
sensation.
• There are a total of about 10,000 taste buds.
• The taste buds are located mainly on the tops of the numerous
fungiform papillae and along the sides of the less numerous
circumvallate and foliate papillae of the tongue.
Food/Drink -> Chemicals in food/drink
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Tongue -> Taste buds on the tongue
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Taste Receptors -> Binding of chemicals to taste receptors
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Cranial Nerves VII, IX, X -> Transmission of signals to the
brain
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Brainstem -> Processing of taste signals
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Thalamus -> Relay of taste information to the gustatory
cortex
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Gustatory Cortex -> Perception and interpretation of taste
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Limbic System -> Emotional and memory responses to taste
• APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY
• Ageusia and Hypogeusia
• Absence of the sense of taste is known as ageusia, and
diminished taste sensitivity is known as hypogeusia.
These conditions can occur due to the following causes:
• Xerostomia (dryness of mouth): Due to lack of salivary secretion, the
chemicals in food are not dissolved in saliva and can not reach the
receptor cell.
• Dysgeusia
• Distorted sense of taste is known as dysgeusia or parageusia, in which
the perception of taste is different from what is being presented (for
e.g. a salty food may taste bitter), or there is perception of a taste
without any tastants in the oral cavity (hallucination of taste).
• Dysgeusia is a feature of temporal lobe epilepsy.