CHAPTER TWO

BASICS OF COMPUTER
NETWORK AND TOPOLOGIES
 Definition of Networks
• A network refers to a collection of interconnected nodes or entities
that are linked together to exchange information or resources.
• The nodes can represent various entities such as computers, devices,
individuals, or organizations, while the connections between them can
be physical (wires, cables) or virtual (wireless, internet).
• Networks enable communication, data sharing, and collaboration
among the connected entities.
 History of Networks
• The history of networks can be traced back to the early 1960s
when computer scientists and researchers began exploring the
concept of connecting computers to share information and
resources. Let's take a journey through the major milestones in the
history of networks:
ARPANET (1969): The Advanced Research Projects Agency
Network (ARPANET) was the first wide-area network and
precursor to the Internet. It was developed by the United States
Department of Defense to link computers at various research
institutions. ARPANET used packet-switching technology, which
allowed data to be broken into small packets and transmitted across
multiple paths.
 ……Cont’d
TCP/IP (1970s): Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
(TCP/IP) is the fundamental protocol suite that underlies the
Internet. It was developed by Vint Cerf and Robert Kahn and
standardized in the 1970s. TCP/IP provided a set of rules for data
transmission and addressing, enabling different types of computers
and networks to communicate with each other.
Ethernet (1973): Ethernet was developed by Robert Metcalfe and
his team at Xerox PARC. It became the dominant local area
network (LAN) technology and laid the foundation for connecting
computers within a limited geographic area. Ethernet used a bus
topology and employed the Carrier Sense Multiple Access with
Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) protocol to control access to the
network.
 ……Cont’d
Local Area Networks (LANs) (1970s-1980s): LANs emerged as
a way to connect computers within a limited area, such as an office
or a building. Along with Ethernet, other LAN technologies like
Token Ring and ARCNET gained popularity during this period.
Internet (1980s-1990s): The Internet, as we know it today, started
to take shape during the 1980s and 1990s. The National Science
Foundation (NSF) funded the development of the NSFNET, a
high-speed backbone network that connected research and
educational institutions across the United States. Commercial
Internet Service Providers (ISPs) emerged, and the Internet opened
up for public use. The World Wide Web, invented by Tim Berners-
Lee in 1989, became a popular way to access information on the
Internet.
 ……Cont’d
Wireless Networks (1990s): The 1990s witnessed the rise of
wireless networks. Wi-Fi (802.11 standard) was introduced,
enabling users to connect to networks without physical cables.
Mobile communication technologies like GSM and CDMA paved
the way for cellular networks, allowing people to access the
Internet and make phone calls on the move.
Broadband and High-Speed Internet (2000s): Broadband
Internet, which provides high-speed data transmission, became
widely available to consumers. Technologies like Digital
Subscriber Line (DSL) and cable modems enabled faster Internet
connections, facilitating the growth of multimedia content and
online services.
 ……Cont’d
Internet of Things (IOT) (2010s): The IOT refers to the
interconnection of everyday objects embedded with sensors,
software, and network connectivity. This technology allows for the
exchange of data and automation of processes. IOT devices, such
as smart home devices, wearables, and industrial sensors, connect
to networks to enable communication and data sharing.
5G Networks (2010s-2020s): The fifth generation of wireless
technology, 5G, started to roll out in the late 2010s and continues
to expand worldwide. 5G promises faster speeds, lower latency,
and increased capacity, enabling new applications such as
autonomous vehicles, remote surgery, and augmented reality.
Applications of computer Networks
Computer networks have a wide range of applications across
various industries and sectors. Here are some common applications
Make a timeline of the important historical events or list historical contributions made by
of computer networks:
people of African heritage.
Communication and Collaboration:
Networks enable communication and collaboration among
individuals and organizations through email, instant messaging,
video conferencing, and shared calendars.
Collaboration tools such as shared document repositories and
project management systems allow teams to work together
efficiently.
 …..Cont’d
Internet and Web Services:
Computer networks provide access to the internet, enabling users
to a timeline
Make browseof the
websites,
important access
historical online
events or services,
list historical and searchmade
contributions forby
information.
people of African heritage.
Web-based applications and services, including social media
platforms, online banking, e-commerce, and cloud computing, rely
on networks to function.
File Sharing and Data Storage:
Networks facilitate file sharing and data storage, allowing users to
share files and access data from remote locations.
Network-attached storage (NAS) systems and cloud storage
services provide centralized data storage and backup solutions.
 …..Cont’d
Resource Sharing:
Networks enable resource sharing, allowing multiple users to share
devices
Make likeof printers,
a timeline scanners,
the important historicaland storage
events [Link] made by
or list historical
Print
people servers
of African and network-attached printers enable users to send print
heritage.

jobs over the network.

Network-attached storage (NAS) devices allow multiple users to
access shared storage resources.
Distributed Computing and Grid Computing:
Networks support distributed computing, where multiple computers
work together to perform complex tasks or calculations.
Grid computing networks connect geographically distributed resources
to solve large-scale computational problems more efficiently.
 Online Gaming and Entertainment:
…..Cont’d
Networks facilitate online gaming by connecting players worldwide,
enabling multiplayer experiences.
 a timeline ofservices
MakeStreaming for music,
the important historicalmovies,
events or and television
list historical rely on made
contributions networks
by
to deliver
people of Africancontent
heritage. to users.

E-Learning and Remote Education:

Networks support e-learning platforms and remote education,
allowing students to access online courses, educational resources, and
virtual classrooms.
Industrial Automation and Control Systems:
Networks are used in industrial settings to connect and control
various devices, machines, and systems, enabling automation and
process control in sectors such as manufacturing, energy, and utilities.
 Standard organizations and protocols
Protocols
• In computer networks, a protocol refers to a set of rules and
procedures that govern the exchange of data between networked
devices.
• It defines how devices should communicate, establish connections,
transmit and receive data, and handle errors or exceptions.
• Protocols ensure that devices can understand each other and
cooperate effectively to exchange information.
 …Cont’d
• Protocols specify various aspects of network communication,
including:
• Syntax: The format and structure of data packets or messages.
Protocols define the specific layout, ordering, and encoding of data
elements within a packet.
• Semantics: The meaning and interpretation of the data. Protocols
define the rules for how devices should interpret the data within a
packet and use it to perform specific actions.
• Timing: The rules and synchronization mechanisms that dictate
when and how data is transmitted. Protocols specify how devices
should coordinate their actions to ensure accurate and timely data
transmission.
 …Cont’d
• Error handling: The procedures for detecting, reporting, and
recovering from errors or data loss during transmission. Protocols
define mechanisms for error detection, retransmission, and error
correction.

• Flow control: The mechanisms for managing the rate of data

transmission between devices to prevent overwhelming the
receiver or congesting the network. Protocols provide techniques
to regulate the flow of data and ensure efficient utilization of
network resources.
 …Cont’d
• Connection establishment and termination: The procedures for
initiating and terminating connections between devices. Protocols
define how devices establish a connection, exchange control
information, and gracefully terminate the connection when
communication is complete.

• Security and authentication: The mechanisms for ensuring the

confidentiality, integrity, and authenticity of data exchanged over
the network. Protocols may include encryption, digital signatures,
and authentication mechanisms to protect data and verify the
identity of communicating parties.
 …Cont’d
• Here are some commonly used protocols in computer networks:
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP):
TCP is a connection-oriented protocol that provides reliable,
ordered, and error-checked delivery of data packets over an IP
network.
It establishes a connection between the sender and receiver and
guarantees that data is delivered without errors and in the correct
order.
TCP is widely used for applications such as web browsing, email,
and file transfer.
 …Cont’d
Internet Protocol (IP):
IP is the principal network layer protocol used in the Internet
Protocol suite.
It provides the addressing and routing mechanism for packet
delivery across networks.
IP assigns a unique IP address to each device on the network and
enables the routing of data packets from the source to the
destination.
 …Cont’d
User Datagram Protocol (UDP):
UDP is a connectionless protocol that offers a lightweight, low-overhead
alternative to TCP.
It provides an unreliable and unordered delivery of data packets.
UDP is commonly used in scenarios where real-time communication or
low-latency transmission is more critical, such as voice and video streaming
or online gaming.
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP):
HTTP is the protocol used for transferring web content over the internet.
It defines how web browsers request resources from web servers and how
servers respond with the requested data.
HTTP operates on top of TCP and uses URLs (Uniform Resource Locators)
to identify and locate web resources.
 …Cont’d
File Transfer Protocol (FTP):
FTP is a protocol used for transferring files between a client and a server
over a network.
It provides a set of commands and responses to facilitate file upload,
download, and management operations.
FTP can operate in either an active or passive mode, depending on the
network configuration.
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP):
SMTP is an email transmission protocol used for sending email messages
between servers.
It defines the rules for how email clients and servers interact to send, relay,
and receive email messages.
 …Cont’d
Domain Name System (DNS):
DNS is a protocol that translates domain names (e.g., [Link])
into IP addresses.
It enables users to access websites using human-readable domain names
instead of numeric IP addresses.
 These protocols, along with many others, define the foundation for
communication and data exchange in computer networks. By adhering to
these protocols, devices can interoperate and communicate effectively across
different network architectures and technologies.
 Standard organizations
 There are several standard organizations and protocols that play a crucial
role in the development and implementation of computer networks. Here are
some of the notable ones:
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE):
The IEEE is a leading global organization that develops standards for
various technology domains, including networking.
IEEE 802 standards define the specifications for local area networks
(LANs) and metropolitan area networks (MANs). Notable IEEE 802
standards include:
a) IEEE 802.3 (Ethernet): Defines the wired Ethernet standard.
b) IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi): Defines wireless LAN standards.
c) IEEE 802.15 (Bluetooth): Defines the Bluetooth wireless standard.
d) IEEE 802.16 (WiMAX): Defines the WiMAX wireless broadband standard.
 ….Cont’d
Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF):
 The IETF is an open international community of network designers,
operators, vendors, and researchers focused on the evolution of the Internet
architecture and the development of Internet standards.
 The IETF develops and maintains a wide range of protocols, including the
Internet Protocol (IP) suite, which includes protocols such as:

Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) and Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6)

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
 ….Cont’d
International Organization for Standardization (ISO):
 The ISO is an international standardization body that develops and
publishes standards for various industries, including networking.
 ISO/IEC 11801: Defines the standards for generic cabling systems used in
structured cabling networks.
Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN):
 ICANN is a non-profit organization responsible for managing and
coordinating the domain name system (DNS) and IP address allocation.
 ICANN oversees the allocation of top-level domains (TLDs) and ensures
the stability and security of the DNS.
 ….Cont’d
World Wide Web Consortium (W3C):
 The W3C is an international community that develops standards and
guidelines for the World Wide Web.
 The W3C has developed numerous protocols and standards, including:
HyperText Markup Language (HTML): The standard markup language for
creating web pages.
Cascading Style Sheets (CSS): The standard for describing the presentation
of web documents.
Extensible Markup Language (XML): A markup language used for
structuring and exchanging data.
 …..Cont’d
Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG):
 The Bluetooth SIG is a global organization that develops and promotes the
Bluetooth wireless technology standard.
 Bluetooth is widely used for short-range wireless communication between
devices.
o These are just a few examples of the standard organizations and protocols
that contribute to the development and interoperability of computer
networks. These standards ensure compatibility, reliability, and
interoperability across networked systems and devices.
 Line configuration
A network is two or more devices connected through a link. A link is a
communication pathway that transfers data from one device to another.
Devices can be a computer, printer, or any other device that is capable to
send and receive data. For visualization purposes, imagine any link as a line
drawn between two points.

For communication to occur, two devices must be connected in some way

to the same link at the same time. There are two possible types of
connections:
1. Point-to-Point Connection
2. Multipoint Connection
 Point-to-Point Connection:
A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices.
The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those
two devices.
Most point-to-point connections use an actual length of wire or cable to
connect the two ends, but other options such as microwave or satellite links
are also possible.
Point to point network topology is considered to be one of the easiest and
most conventional networks topologies.
It is also the simplest to establish and understand.
Example: Point-to-Point connection between the remote control and
Television for changing the channels.
 Multipoint Configuration:
In a multipoint configuration, multiple devices are connected to a single
communication line or link.
This configuration enables multiple devices to communicate with each
other over the same line. It is commonly used in scenarios where multiple
devices need to share resources or exchange data, such as in a LAN or
WAN.
In a multipoint configuration, devices may communicate using various
techniques like broadcasting or addressing specific devices using unique
identifiers.
Types of Networks
• There are different types of network classified based on
the following three categories:
 Types of Networks
 Types of
based on connection
Networks medium:
based on size:  Wired network
 PAN  Wireless network
 LAN
 MAN
 WAN  Types of Networks
based on resources
and access:
 Pear-to-pear
 Client - server
 Based on Media:
a. Wired Network: A wired network uses physical cables, such as Ethernet
cables or fiber optic cables, to transmit data between devices.
b. Wireless Network: A wireless network uses wireless signals, such as Wi-Fi
or Bluetooth, to transmit data between devices without the need for physical
cables.
 Types of Networks Based on Size
• Computer networks can be characterized by their sizes.
The size of a network can be expressed in terms of the
geographic area the network occupies and the number of
computers connected to the network. Networks can cover
anything from a handful of devices within a single room to
millions of devices spread across the entire globe.
• Some of the network types based on size are:
 Personal area network or PAN
 Local area network or LAN
 Metropolitan area network or MAN
 Wide area network or WAN
 Personal Area Network (PAN)

• A personal area network (PAN) is a

computer network organized around an
individual person within a single
building.
• A common example is a wireless
network that connects a computer with
its peripherals.
• Almost every computer has an attached
monitor, keyboard, mouse and printer.
If there is no wireless network, this
connection must be done with cables.
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 A local area network (LAN)

A local area network (LAN) is usually

privately owned and links the devices in a
single office, building, or campus. LANs
are designed to allow resources to be
shared between personal computers or
workstations. The resources to be shared
can include hardware (e.g., a printer),
software (e.g., an application program), or
data.
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 Metropolitan area networks:

 A metropolitan area network, or MAN, is a network that’s smaller than a typical WAN but
larger than a LAN. Typically, a MAN connects two or more LANs within a same city but are
far enough apart that the networks can’t be connected using a simple cable or wireless
connection.

 Owned by private company or it may be a service provided by public company ( such as local
tel.-company)

 Extended over an entire city.

 May be single network such as a cable television network, or it may be connected number of
LANs into a large network so that resources may be shared LAN-TO-LAN.
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A
Wide area networks:

A wide area network, or WAN, is a network that spans a large geographic area, such as an
entire city, region, or even an entire country. WANs are typically used to connect two or more
LANs that are relatively far apart. For example, internet

In general WAN

 Connects computers over states, countries and continent

 Unlimited geographical coverage

 More sophisticated

 Connects LANs and MANs

 Expensive technology
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A
……Cont’d
A
 Comparison between Different Computer
Networks
Parameters PAN LAN MAN WAN

Metropolitan Area
Full Name Personal Area Network Local Area Network Wide Area Network
Network

Technology Bluetooth, IrDA,Zigbee Ethernet & Wifi FDDI, CDDi. ATM Leased Line, Dial-Up

Range 1-100 m Upto 2km 5-50 km Above 50 km

Transmission Speed Very High Very High Average Low

Ownership Private Private Private or Public Private or Public

Maintenance Very Easy Easy Difficult Very Difficult

Cost Very Low Low High Very High

 Types of Network Based on Resource Access and
Sharing

Peer-to-Peer Network
• In a Peer-to-Peer network, each machine (computer) is known as peer and can
participate in the sharing of files or resources.
• No server is required in this network, so there is no additional cost for a dedicated
machine, but there is also no a real security.
• A peer-to-peer network is also called workgroup and there is no hierarchy among
the computers.
• This mean that all computers are peers (equals) and the connection is created for
resource sharing and communication purposes only.
• The number of computers in peer-to-peer network usually does not exceed 10; if
the number is beyond this, the network becomes very difficult for administration.
…….Cont’d

Advantages of peer-to-peer network

 Server is not required.
 All computers are equal in the network.
 No additional cost is needed for dedicated-machine.
Disadvantages of peer-to-peer network
 Provides share level security, i.e. it applies a trust-based
security.
 Can work in small environments only.
 Client-server Network
 A client-server network involves multiple clients or workstations, connecting to
at least one central server.

 Most resources are installed on the server. When clients need access to these
resources, they access them from the server.

 Servers often have private user directories as well as multiple public directories.

 In client-server networks the clients are allowed to function as workstations

without sharing any resources.

 It is easier to upgrade software applications and files because they are held on
one single computer. System-wide services can be provided through the server
software.

 Security is enhanced on a client server network because the security is handled

by the server.
Comparison of client-server and peer-to-Peer
networks

[Link] Client-server Network Peer-to-peer Network

Clients and server are differentiated; Clients and server are not dif-
1
specific server and clients are present. ferentiated.

2 Focuses on information sharing. Focuses on connectivity.

Centralized server is used to store the
3 Each peer has its own data.
data.
Each and every node can do
Server responds the service which is
4 both request and respond for
requested by client.
the services.
Less costly than client-server
5 Costlier than peer-to-peer network.
network.
More stable than peer-to-peer net- Less stable if number of peer is
6
work. increased.
…..Cont’d
 Network Topology
 Network topology refers to the physical or logical arrangement of devices,
nodes, and connections in a computer network.
 It describes how devices are interconnected and how data flows between
them.
There are several common network topologies:
1. Bus Topology
2. Star Topology
3. Ring Topology
4. Mesh Topology
5. Hybrid Topology
a. Bus Topology
• In bus topology, there is a long cable called bus which acts as a
backbone for all the .A bus topology network connects each
computer or electronic devised to a backbone cable (or bus) just
like a water pipe interconnection.
b. Mesh Topology
• In mesh topology (also called complete topology), each node is
connected to every other node by direct links. Obviously, for m
nodes, there would be m (m–1)/2 physical links. This also means
that every node must have (m–1) input/output ports.
c. Star Topology
• In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point
link only to a central controller, usually called a switch. The
devices are not directly linked to one another. Unlike a mesh
topology, a star topology does not allow direct traffic between
devices. If a node wants to send some data to another node, it
sends it to this switch. The switch, in turn, sends it to the
appropriate node.
d. Ring Topology
• In ring topology, each node is directly connected to only its two
adjacent neighbors. If a node wants to send something to a
distant node on a ring, it has to go through many intermediate
nodes, which act like repeaters, reproducing the incoming bit
stream with full signals on the outgoing line.
e. Hybrid Topology
• A hybrid topology is defined as a network topology that
combines two or more different network topologies. A hybrid
topology can be a combination of bus topology, ring topology
and mesh topology. The selection of different types of network
topologies combined together depends upon the number of
computers, their location, and the required performance.
Advantages and disadvantages of all network
topologies

Topology Advantages Disadvantages

- Difficult to reconfigure
- Cheap
Bus - Break in bus disables entire net
- Easy to install
work
- Cheap
- Easy to install
Star - More expensive than bus
- Easy to reconfigure
- Fault tolerant
- Efficient - Reconfiguration is difficult
Ring
- Easy to install - Very expensive
- Extremely difficult for reconfigu-
- Simplest ration
Mesh
- Most fault tolerant - Extremely expensive
- Very complex
Resources

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• Source #1
• Source #2

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• Source #3

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