CHAPTER 3

THE REFERENCE
MODEL FOR NETWORK
COMMUNICATION
 THE TWO POPULAR REFERENCE
MODELS ARE
• In the context of computer networks, reference models serve as conceptual
frameworks that standardize communication between heterogeneous networks.

• These models provide a structured way to understand and organize the various
layers involved in network communication. Let’s explore two prominent
reference models:

• 1. OSI Model 2. TCP/IP

Protocol Suite

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 OSI MODEL AND FUNCTION OF EACH LAYER
 OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that describes how
information from a software application in one computer moves through a physical
medium to the software application in another computer.
 OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network function.
 OSI model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
in 1984, and it is now considered as an architectural model for the inter-computer
communications.
 OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks. Each layer
is assigned a particular task.
 Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be performed
independently.

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4
 …..CONT’D
 The OSI model is divided into two layers: upper layers and lower layers.

 The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals with the application related
issues, and they are implemented only in the software. The application layer is
closest to the end user. Both the end user and the application layer interact with
the software applications. An upper layer refers to the layer just above another
layer.
 The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport issues. The data
link layer and the physical layer are implemented in hardware and software. The
physical layer is the lowest layer of the OSI model and is closest to the physical
medium. The physical layer is mainly responsible for placing the information on
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the physical medium
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7
1. APPLICATION LAYER

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 ….CONT’D
 An application layer serves as a window for users and application processes
to access network service.
 It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation, etc.
 An application layer is not an application, but it performs the application
layer functions.
 This layer provides the network services to the end-users.
Functions of Application layer:
• File transfer, access, and management (FTAM): An application layer allows a
user to access the files in a remote computer, to retrieve the files from a computer
and to manage the files in a remote computer.
• Mail services: An application layer provides the facility for email forwarding and
storage.
• Directory services: An application provides the distributed database sources and
is used to provide that global information about various objects.
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 2. PRESENTATION LAYER
• A Presentation layer is
mainly concerned with the
syntax and semantics of the
information exchanged
between the two systems.
• It acts as a data translator
for a network.
• This layer is a part of the
operating system that
converts the data from one
presentation format to
another format.
• The Presentation layer is
also known as the syntax
layer.
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 FUNCTIONS OF PRESENTATION LAYER:
Translation: The processes in two systems exchange the information in the form
of character strings, numbers and so on. Different computers use different
encoding methods, the presentation layer handles the interoperability between
the different encoding methods. It converts the data from sender-dependent
format into a common format and changes the common format into receiver-
dependent format at the receiving end.
Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain privacy. Encryption is a process
of converting the sender-transmitted information into another form and sends
the resulting message over the network.
Compression: Data compression is a process of compressing the data, i.e., it
reduces the number of bits to be transmitted. Data compression is very
important in multimedia such as text, audio, video.

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 3. SESSION LAYER

• It is a layer 3 in the
OSI model.
• The Session layer is
used to establish,
maintain and
synchronizes the
interaction between
communicating
devices.
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 FUNCTIONS OF SESSION LAYER:
• Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog controller that creates a dialog
between two processes or we can say that it allows the communication between
two processes which can be either half-duplex or full-duplex.
• Synchronization: Session layer adds some checkpoints when transmitting the
data in a sequence. If some error occurs in the middle of the transmission of
data, then the transmission will take place again from the checkpoint. This
process is known as Synchronization and recovery.

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4. TRANSPORT LAYER

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 ….CONT’D
• The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are transmitted in the
order in which they are sent and there is no duplication of data.
• The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data completely.

• It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into smaller units
known as segments.
• This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a point-to-point
connection between source and destination to deliver the data reliably.

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The two protocols used in this layer are: ….CONT’D
• Transmission Control Protocol
It is a standard protocol that allows the systems to communicate over the
internet.
It establishes and maintains a connection between hosts.
When data is sent over the TCP connection, then the TCP protocol divides the
data into smaller units known as segments. Each segment travels over the
internet using multiple routes, and they arrive in different orders at the
destination.
The transmission control protocol reorders the packets in the correct order at
the receiving end.
• User Datagram Protocol
User Datagram Protocol is a transport layer protocol.
It is an unreliable transport protocol as in this case receiver does not send any
acknowledgment when the packet is received, the sender does not wait for any
acknowledgment. Therefore, this makes a protocol unreliable.
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 FUNCTIONS OF TRANSPORT LAYER:
• Service-point addressing: Computers run several programs simultaneously due
to this reason, the transmission of data from source to the destination not only
from one computer to another computer but also from one process to another
process.
• The transport layer adds the header that contains the address known as a
service-point address or port address. The responsibility of the network layer is
to transmit the data from one computer to another computer and the
responsibility of the transport layer is to transmit the message to the correct
process.
• Segmentation and reassembly: When the transport layer receives the message
from the upper layer, it divides the message into multiple segments, and each
segment is assigned with a sequence number that uniquely identifies each
segment. When the message has arrived at the destination, then the transport
layer reassembles the message based on their sequence numbers.

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 ….CONT’D
• Connection control: Transport layer provides two services Connection-
oriented service and connectionless service. A connectionless service treats
each segment as an individual packet, and they all travel in different routes
to reach the destination. A connection-oriented service makes a connection
with the transport layer at the destination machine before delivering the
packets. In connection-oriented service, all the packets travel in the single
route.
• Flow control: The transport layer also responsible for flow control but it is
performed end-to-end rather than across a single link.
• Error control: The transport layer is also responsible for Error control.
Error control is performed end-to-end rather than across the single link. The
sender transport layer ensures that message reach at the destination without
any error.

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5. NETWORK LAYER

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 …..CONT’D

o It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, tracks the location of devices on

the network.
o It determines the best path to move data from source to the destination based
on the network conditions, the priority of service, and other factors.
o The Data link layer is responsible for routing and forwarding the packets.
o Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are specified in this layer and used to
provide the routing services within an internetwork.
o The protocols used to route the network traffic are known as Network layer
protocols. Examples of protocols are IP and Ipv6.

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 FUNCTIONS OF NETWORK LAYER
• Internetworking: An internetworking is the main responsibility of the
network layer. It provides a logical connection between different devices.
• Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination address to the
header of the frame. Addressing is used to identify the device on the internet.
• Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it
determines the best optimal path out of the multiple paths from source to the
destination.
• Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the segments from the upper layer and
converts them into packets. This process is known as Packetizing. It is
achieved by internet protocol (IP).

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 6. DATA-LINK LAYER
o This layer is responsible for
the error-free transfer of data
frames.
o It defines the format of the
data on the network.
o It provides a reliable and
efficient communication
between two or more devices.
o It is mainly responsible for
the unique identification of
each device that resides on a
local network.

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 …..CONT’D
• It contains two sub-layers:

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 FUNCTIONS OF THE DATA-LINK LAYER
• Framing: The data link layer translates the physical's raw bit stream into
packets known as Frames. The Data link layer adds the header and trailer to
the frame. The header which is added to the frame contains the hardware
destination and source address.

• Physical Addressing: The Data link layer adds a header to the frame that
contains a destination address. The frame is transmitted to the destination
address mentioned in the header.
• Flow Control: Flow control is the main functionality of the Data-link layer. It
is the technique through which the constant data rate is maintained on both
the sides so that no data get corrupted. It ensures that the transmitting station
such as a server with higher processing speed does not exceed the receiving
station, with lower processing speed.

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26
 …..CONT’D

• Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding a calculated value CRC

(Cyclic Redundancy Check) that is placed to the Data link layer's trailer
which is added to the message frame before it is sent to the physical layer. If
any error seems to occur, then the receiver sends the acknowledgment for the
retransmission of the corrupted frames.
• Access Control: When two or more devices are connected to the same
communication channel, then the data link layer protocols are used to
determine which device has control over the link at a given time.

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7. PHYSICAL LAYER
 The main functionality of the
physical layer is to transmit the
individual bits from one node to
another node.
 It is the lowest layer of the OSI
model.
 It establishes, maintains and
deactivates the physical connection.
 It specifies the mechanical, electrical
and procedural network interface
specifications.

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 FUNCTIONS OF A PHYSICAL LAYER:

• Line Configuration: It defines the way how two or more devices can be
connected physically.
• Data Transmission: It defines the transmission mode whether it is simplex, half-
duplex or full-duplex mode between the two devices on the network.
• Topology: It defines the way how network devices are arranged.
• Signals: It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the
information.

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 TCP/IP MODEL
TCP/IP was designed and developed by the Department of Defense (DoD) in
the 1960s and is based on standard protocols.
It stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. The
TCP/IP model is a concise version of the OSI model. It contains four layers,
unlike the seven layers in the OSI model.
The number of layers is sometimes referred to as five or four. Here In this
article, we’ll study five layers. The Physical Layer and Data Link Layer are
referred to as one single layer as the ‘Physical Layer’ or ‘Network Interface
Layer’ in the 4-layer reference.
The TCP/IP model was developed prior to the OSI model.
The TCP/IP model is not exactly similar to the OSI model.

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 WHAT DOES TCP/IP DO?
The main work of TCP/IP is to transfer the data of a computer from one device
to another.
 The main condition of this process is to make data reliable and accurate so that
the receiver will receive the same information which is sent by the sender.
To ensure that, each message reaches its final destination accurately, the TCP/IP
model divides its data into packets and combines them at the other end, which
helps in maintaining the accuracy of the data while transferring from one end to
another end.

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 WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TCP
AND IP?
TCP and IP are different protocols of Computer Networks.
The basic difference between TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and IP
(Internet Protocol) is in the transmission of data.
In simple words, IP finds the destination of the mail and TCP has the work to
send and receive the mail. UDP is another protocol, which does not require IP to
communicate with another computer.
IP is required by only TCP. This is the basic difference between TCP and IP.

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 HOW DOES THE TCP/IP MODEL WORK?
Whenever we want to send something over the internet using the TCP/IP Model,
the TCP/IP Model divides the data into packets at the sender’s end and the same
packets have to be recombined at the receiver’s end to form the same data, and
this thing happens to maintain the accuracy of the data.
TCP/IP model divides the data into a 4-layer procedure, where the data first go
into this layer in one order and again in reverse order to get organized in the
same way at the receiver’s end.

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 …..CONT’D
1. Physical Layer
• It is a group of applications requiring network communications. This layer is
responsible for generating the data and requesting connections. It acts on behalf
of the sender and the Network Access layer on the behalf of the receiver.
2. Data Link Layer
• The packet’s network protocol type, in this case, TCP/IP, is identified by the
data-link layer. Error prevention and “framing” are also provided by the data-
link layer. Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) framing and Ethernet IEEE 802.2
framing are two examples of data-link layer protocols.

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 3. INTERNET LAYER
• This layer parallels the functions of OSI’s Network layer. It defines the protocols which are
responsible for the logical transmission of data over the entire network. The main protocols
residing at this layer are as follows:
 IP: IP stands for Internet Protocol and it is responsible for delivering packets from the source
host to the destination host by looking at the IP addresses in the packet headers. IP has 2
versions: IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4 is the one that most websites are using currently. But IPv6 is
growing as the number of IPv4 addresses is limited in number when compared to the number of
users.
 ICMP: ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is encapsulated within IP
datagrams and is responsible for providing hosts with information about network problems.
 ARP: ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol. Its job is to find the hardware address of a
host from a known IP address. ARP has several types: Reverse ARP, Proxy ARP, Gratuitous
ARP, and Inverse ARP.

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 4. TRANSPORT LAYER
• The TCP/IP transport layer protocols exchange data receipt acknowledgments and
retransmit missing packets to ensure that packets arrive in order and without error. End-to-
end communication is referred to as such. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User
Datagram Protocol are transport layer protocols at this level (UDP).
TCP: Applications can interact with one another using TCP as though they
were physically connected by a circuit. TCP transmits data in a way that
resembles character-by-character transmission rather than separate packets.
A starting point that establishes the connection, the whole transmission in
byte order, and an ending point that closes the connection make up this
transmission.
UDP: The datagram delivery service is provided by UDP, the other transport
layer protocol. Connections between receiving and sending hosts are not
verified by UDP. Applications that transport little amounts of data use UDP
rather than TCP because it eliminates the processes of establishing and
validating connections.

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 5. APPLICATION LAYER
• This layer is analogous to the transport layer of the OSI model. It is responsible for end-to-
end communication and error-free delivery of data. It shields the upper-layer applications
from the complexities of data. The three main protocols present in this layer are:
 HTTP and HTTPS: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. It is used by the World
Wide Web to manage communications between web browsers and servers. HTTPS stands
for HTTP-Secure. It is a combination of HTTP with SSL(Secure Socket Layer). It is
efficient in cases where the browser needs to fill out forms, sign in, authenticate, and carry
out bank transactions.
 SSH: SSH stands for Secure Shell. It is a terminal emulations software similar to Telnet.
The reason SSH is preferred is because of its ability to maintain the encrypted connection.
It sets up a secure session over a TCP/IP connection.
 NTP: NTP stands for Network Time Protocol. It is used to synchronize the clocks on our
computer to one standard time source. It is very useful in situations like bank transactions.
Assume the following situation without the presence of NTP. Suppose you carry out a
transaction, where your computer reads the time at 2:30 PM while the server records it at
2:28 PM. The server can crash very badly if it’s out of sync.

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…..CONT’D

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Connection Oriented Vs Connectionless
Approach
 Data communication is a telecommunication network to send and
receive data between two or more computers over the same or
different network.
 There are two ways to establish a connection before sending data
from one device to another, that are Connection-
Oriented and Connectionless Service.
 Connection-oriented service involves the creation and termination
of the connection for sending the data between two or more devices.
 In contrast, connectionless service does not require establishing any
connection and termination process for transferring the data over a
network.
 Connection-Oriented Service
 A connection-oriented service is a network service that was
designed and developed after the telephone system. A connection-
oriented service is used to create an end to end connection between
the sender and the receiver before transmitting the data over the
same or different networks.
 In connection-oriented service, packets are transmitted to the
receiver in the same order the sender has sent them. It uses a
handshake method that creates a connection between the user and
sender for transmitting the data over the network. Hence it is also
known as a reliable network service.
 Suppose, a sender wants to send data to the receiver.
Then, first, the sender sends a request packet to a
receiver in the form of an SYN packet.
 After that, the receiver responds to the sender's
request with an (SYN-ACK) signal/packets.
 That represents the confirmation is received by the
receiver to start the communication between the
sender and the receiver.
 Now a sender can send the message or data to the
receiver.
 Similarly, a receiver can respond or send the data to
the sender in the form of packets. After successfully
exchanging or transmitting data, a sender can
terminate the connection by sending a signal to the
receiver. In this way, we can say that it is a reliable
network service.
 What is a TCP?
 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is a connection-oriented
protocol that allows communication between two or more computer
devices by establishing connections in the same or different
networks.
 It is the most important protocol that uses internet protocol to
transfer the data from one end to another. Hence, it is sometimes
referred to as TCP/IP.
 It ensures that the connection is established and maintained until the
data packet is transferring between the sender and receiver is
complete.
 Connectionless Service
 A connection is similar to a postal system, in which each letter takes along
different route paths from the source to the destination address.
 Connectionless service is used in the network system to transfer data from
one end to another end without creating any connection. So it does not
require establishing a connection before sending the data from the sender to
the receiver.
 It is not a reliable network service because it does not guarantee the transfer
of data packets to the receiver, and data packets can be received in any order
to the receiver. Therefore we can say that the data packet does not follow
a defined path.
 In connectionless service, the transmitted data packet is not received by the
receiver due to network congestion, and the data may be lost.
….Cont’d
 For example, a sender can directly
send any data to the receiver without
establishing any connection because it
is a connectionless service.
 Data sent by the sender will be in the
packet or data streams containing the
receiver's address.
 In connectionless service, the data can
be travelled and received in any order.
 However, it does not guarantee to
transfer of the packets to the right
destination.
 What is UDP?
 The UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is a connectionless protocol
that allows communication between two or more devices without
establishing any connection.
 In this protocol, a sender sends the data packets to the receiver
that holds the destination address.
 A UDP does not ensure to deliver the data packets to the correct
destination, and it does not generate any acknowledgment about
the sender's data.
 Similarly, it does not acknowledge the receiver about the data.
Hence, it is an unreliable protocol.
S. Comparison Connection-oriented Service Connection Less Service
No Parameter
1. Related System It is designed and developed based on the telephone It is service based on the postal system.
system.
2. Definition It is used to create an end to end connection between It is used to transfer the data packets between senders to the
the senders to the receiver before transmitting the receiver without creating any connection.
data over the same or different network.
3. Virtual path It creates a virtual path between the sender and the It does not create any virtual connection or path between
receiver. the sender and the receiver.
4. Authentication It requires authentication before transmitting the It does not require authentication before transferring data
data packets to the receiver. packets.
5. Data Packets Path All data packets are received in the same order as Not all data packets are received in the same order as those
those sent by the sender. sent by the sender.
6. Bandwidth It requires a higher bandwidth to transfer the data It requires low bandwidth to transfer the data packets.
Requirement packets.
7. Data Reliability It is a more reliable connection service because it It is not a reliable connection service because it does not
guarantees data packets transfer from one end to the guarantee the transfer of data packets from one end to
other end with a connection. another for establishing a connection.
8. Congestion There is no congestion as it provides an end-to-end There may be congestion due to not providing an end-to-
connection between sender and receiver during end connection between the source and receiver to transmit
transmission of data. of data packets.
9. Examples Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is an example User Datagram Protocol (UDP), Internet Protocol (IP), and
of a connection-oriented service. Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) are examples of
connectionless service.
Comparison of OSI and TCP/IP Models
What is OSI model?
• The OSI stands for Open System Interconnection, which was developed in
1980s. It is a conceptual model used for network communication. It is not
implemented entirely, but it is still referenced today.
• This OSI model consists of seven layers, and each layer is connected to each
other. The data moves down the OSI model, and each layer adds additional
information.
• The data moves down until it reaches the last layer of the OSI model. When the
data is received at the last layer of the OSI model, then the data is transmitted
over the network.
• Once the data is reached on the other side, then the process will get reversed.
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 …..Cont’d

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 ….Cont’d
What is TCP/IP model?
• The TCP model stands for Transmission
Control Protocol, whereas IP stands for
Internet Protocol.
• A number of protocols that make the internet
possibly comes under the TCP/IP model.
• Nowadays, we do not hear the name of the
TCP/IP model much, we generally hear the
name of the IPv4 or IPv6, but it is still valid.
This model consists of 4 layers.
• Now, we will look at the diagrammatic
representation of the TCP/IP model.
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 ….Cont’d
• As shown in the above diagram, the TCP/IP model has 4 layers, while the OSI model
consists of 7 layers.
• Diagrammatically, it looks that the 4 layers of the TCP/IP model exactly fit the 7 layers
of the OSI model, but this is not reality.
• The application layer of the TCP/IP model maps to the first three layers, i.e., application,
session, and presentation layer of the OSI model.
• The transport layer of the TCP maps directly to the transport layer of the OSI model. The
internet layer of the TCP/IP model maps directly to the network layer of the OSI model.
• The last two layers of the OSI model map to the network layer of the TCP/IP model.
• TCP/IP is the most widely used model as compared to the OSI model for providing
communication between computers over the internet.
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 Similarities between the OSI and TCP/IP model
The following are the similarities between the OSI and
TCP/IP
Share common model:
architecture
• Both the models are the logical models and having similar architectures as both the models are constructed with the
layers.
Define standards
• Both the layers have defined standards, and they also provide the framework used for implementing the standards and
devices.
Simplified troubleshooting process
• Both models have simplified the troubleshooting process by breaking the complex function into simpler components.
Pre-defined standards
• The standards and protocols which are already pre-defined; these models do not redefine them; they just reference or
use them. For example, the Ethernet standards were already defined by the IEEE before the development of these
models; instead of recreating them, models have used these pre-defined standards.
Both have similar functionality of 'transport' and 'network' layers
• The function which is performed between the 'presentation' and the 'network' layer is similar to the function
performed at the transport layer. 51
 Differences between the OSI and TCP/IP model
Parameters OSI Model TCP/IP Model
OSI stands for Open Systems TCP/IP stands for Transmission
Full Form
Interconnection Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
Layers It has 7 layers It has 4 layers
Usage It is low in usage It is mostly used
Approach It is vertically approached It is horizontally approached
Delivery of the package is Delivery of the package is not
Delivery
guaranteed in OSI Model guaranteed in TCP/IP Model
Replacement of tools and changes Replacing the tools is not easy as it
Replacement
can easily be done in this model is in OSI Model

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 Differences between the OSI and TCP/IP model
Parameters OSI Model TCP/IP Model
It is less reliable than TCP/IP It is more reliable than OSI
Reliability
Model Model
Not tied to specific protocols, but
examples include HTTP
Protocol HTTP, FTP, TCP, UDP, IP,
(Application), SSL/TLS
Example Ethernet
(Presentation), TCP (Transport), IP
(Network), Ethernet (Data Link)
Error Built into Data Link and Transport
Built into protocols like TCP
Handling layers
Both connection-oriented (TCP)
Connection and connectionless (UDP) TCP (connection-oriented),
Orientation
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protocols are covered at the UDP (connectionless)
Transport layer
Thank You