Internet of Things

IEEE 802.11

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 Introduction – IEEE 802.11
 It belongs to the Physical (PHY) and Media Access
Control (MAC) layers in the OSI reference model
 IEEE 802.11 Wireless Fidelity (Wi-Fi) is a Wireless LAN
standard that operates at 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz frequency
bands.
 Different versions
 802.11a/g (Published in 1999/2003)
 802.11n (Published in 2009)
 802.11ac (Published in 2014)
 802.11ah (Published in 2017)
 This version supports a
 large number of resource-constrained devices which is equal
to 8191
 large communication range of ∼ 1 km at the expense of
throughput
 infrequent short packet transmission with a data rate of ∼ 100
2
kbps
 Features
 The features of IEEE 802.11 protocol are listed
below
 Layers
 Amended Physical and MAC layers. Supports
MCS (Modulation and Coding Scheme) index 0 to
MCS index 10
 Channel bandwidth
 These are 1, 2, 4, 8, and 16 MHz
 Different countries use different frequency bands
based on the available spectrum
 This leads to a different number of channels and
channel sizes.
 Antenna configuration
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 4 × 4 MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output) is
used
 Frequency Band and Frequency Division
 USA
 Available Channels: 1, 2, 4, 8, and 16 MHz
 Frequency Range: 902 MHz to 928 MHz
 Europe
 Available Channels: 1 and 2 MHz
 Frequency Range: 863 MHz to 868 MHz
 Note: 1 MHz channels can be merged to form higher
bandwidth channels, such as 2 MHz
 Japan
 Supported Frequency Range: 916.5 MHz to 927.5 MHz
 Korea
 Supported Frequency Range: 917.5 MHz to 923.5 MHz
 China
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 Supported Frequency Range: 755 MHz to 787 MHz
 Channels of different countries

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 Definitions
 Modulation
 The process of varying a carrier
signal's properties (such as
amplitude, frequency, or phase) to
encode information for transmission
 It adapts a carrier signal to fit
different channels, enhancing signal
quality and range. Example:
(amplitude modulation) AM radio
uses amplitude modulation to
transmit audio signals
 De-modulation
 The process of extracting the original
information signal from the modulated
carrier signal at the receiver
 It retrieves the original information from
the modulated signal, ensuring accurate
data recovery. Example: Frequency
modulation (FM) radio receivers use
frequency demodulation to extract audio
6 content from broadcast signals
 List of Modulation Techniques

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 Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK)
 Is a digital modulation scheme that encodes data by
varying the phase of a carrier signal
 It doubles the data rate by sending two bits per symbol
 It reduces the amount of bandwidth needed compared
to other modulation schemes
 It is more resistant to noise, helping maintain signal
quality
 It increases overall data throughput while keeping
complexity manageable

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 Even and odd sequences

 It modulates 2 bits at once, resulting in 4

phase combinations for 00, 01, 10, and 11
 The data sequence is divided into two
separate sequences: even and odd
 The even sequence consists of all even-
indexed bits (b0, b2, b4, b6) of bk(t), with
each bit being transmitted for a duration of
2T
 The odd sequence consists of all odd-indexed
bits (b1, b3, b5, b7) of bk(t), with each bit
also being transmitted for a duration of 2T

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 Even and odd sequences

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 QPSK Modulator and Demodulator

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 QPSK Modulator and Demodulator
 In the QPSK modulator, the bit splitter separates
the data sequence into even and odd sequences,
each with a duration of 2T
 A local oscillator generates cosine and sine
carriers, with a 90-degree phase shift between
them, for modulation of the even and odd
sequences respectively
 The even sequence modulates the cosine (in-
phase) carrier, while the odd sequence
modulates the sine (quadrature) carrier, and the
resulting modulated signal is transmitted over
the channel

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 QPSK Modulator and Demodulator

 In the QPSK demodulator, the local oscillator is

used again, and integration is performed over two-
bit intervals
 The processed signals are then passed through a
detection block and a bit combining block, which
uses multiplexing to combine the signals
 The detection block outputs a value of one if the
received signal is greater than zero, otherwise, it
outputs zero

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 Constellation diagram

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QPSK phase change

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 Phase Change in QPSK

 The QPSK constellation diagram illustrates the

phase changes associated with the QPSK
modulation scheme
 The minimum phase shift observed in QPSK is 90°
when transitioning between symbols such as 00 to
01 or 10
 The maximum phase shift is 180°, occurring when
the symbol changes from 00 to 11

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Offset-QPSK
 In Offset-QPSK (OQPSK), the waveform is shifted or staggered
by (T) to ensure that even and odd bits do not change
simultaneously
 This staggering avoids the 180° phase shift that can occur in
standard QPSK, as seen at time 2T in the even-odd example
 Despite eliminating 180° phase shifts, ±90° phase shifts are
still present in Offset-QPSK
 At any integer multiple of (T), either the even or odd sequence
changes, but not both simultaneously.

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Offset-QPSK

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Even and odd decomposition of OQPSK

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Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

 Is denoted by 16-QAM or 64-QAM, indicating the use of

16 or 64 symbols, and is also known as Quadrature
Amplitude Shift Keying (QASK)
 Unlike BPSK and QPSK, where the phases are different
but amplitude remains constant, digital QAM varies both
amplitude and phase to enhance noise immunity
 In digital QAM, signals are distinguished by the minimum
distance between constellation points, while amplitude
and phase both vary

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Constellation of QAM scheme

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Supporting a Large Number of Devices

 In the IEEE 802.11 protocol's MAC layer, each client

station is assigned a unique Association Identifier (AID)
by the Access Point (AP)
 The previous version supported up to 2007 stations due
to the limited length of the Traffic Indication Map (TIM)
bitmap and Information Element (IE)
 The IEEE 802.11ah version uses a hierarchical AID
system with 13 bits, allowing support for up to 8191
stations
 AID 0 is reserved for group addressed traffic, so the total
number of supported stations is

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AID Hierarchy
 It includes page, block, sub-block, and station IDs with 2,
5, 3, and 3 bits respectively
 This hierarchy supports pages, blocks per page, sub-
blocks per block, and stations per sub-block
 Each sub-block supports 8 stations, each block supports
64 stations, and each page supports 2048 stations. The
total number of stations is 4×32×8×8−1, which equals
8291
 Higher level IDs like page ID, block ID, or sub-block ID
can be used to refer to groups of stations, aiding in
resource management and clustering based on
Bit Bit Bit 10 Bit Bit 8 Bit 7 Bit 6 Bit 5 Bit 4 Bit 3 Bit 2 Bit 1 Bit 0
characteristics
12 11 such
9 as location, battery level, and traffic
pattern
Page ID Block ID Sub-Block ID Station ID
24 2 bits 5 bits 3 bits 3 bits
Terminologies in AID
AID Structure

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Power Saving
 In the STA (Station) power-saving model, there are two
states: awake and sleep
 In the awake state, the STA continuously senses, transmits, and
receives signals, while in the sleep state, the transceiver is turned
off and cannot sense signals
 Two power-saving mechanisms for STA are Non-TIM STA
and TIM STA
 TIM STA
 It receives periodic beacon frames with Traffic Indication Map (TIM)
Information Element (IE) from the AP
 It wakes up at regular intervals to check for buffered packets
 The TIM IE bit indicates if the AP has packets for the STA, which
then requests them via a Power Saving (PS) Poll frame
 Non-TIM STA

26 Does not receive TIM IE or wake up at regular intervals. It does not
Power Saving
 Example of RAW for TIM STA
 The Restricted Access Window (RAW) ensures fair channel access by
dividing the RAW duration into slots of duration . STAs transmit or
receive within their allocated slot as defined by the AP
 Slot Calculation
 Using the beacon information, the number of slots ​ is calculated as ​

index 𝑖=2 and , the slot is determined by mod , which results in slot
 For example, with , slots are numbered from 0 to 3. For a STA with

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Resource Allocation Frame
 The Resource Allocation Frame provides scheduling info for
STAs, detailing their time slots for transmission and reception
 The Access Point (AP) schedules uplink and downlink
transmissions based on two polls: normal Power Saving (PS)
and Uplink Data Indication (UDI PS)
 The Uplink Data Indication (UDI) Poll field set to 1 indicates
that a STA has uplink data to send to the AP

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Short Header
 In Legacy 802.11, headers are 36 bytes plus 4 bytes for Frame
Check Sequence (FCS), resulting in at least 36% overhead and
reduced throughput.
 IEEE 802.11ah improves throughput with a shorter header,
minimizing size and increasing efficiency.
 The short header moves Quality of Service (QoS) and High
Throughput (HT) information to the Signal (SIG) field of the
Physical (PHY) header and removes Duration and ID fields, as
carrier sensing is not used.
 The short header is distinguished from the legacy MAC header
by a new version in the Frame Control (FC) field and is at least
12 bytes shorter
 The ACK frame in the short header version is replaced with an
NDP (Null Data Packet) by removing the MAC and FCS fields,
leaving only the PHY header
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Speed Frame Exchange
 In legacy IEEE 802.11, the STA waits for two ACKs, keeping it awake longer
 Speed Frame Exchange allows the STA to sleep immediately after sending data
and receiving a quick reply from the AP, within one TXOP
 This reduces ACK overhead, speeding up frame exchange and saving power
 Target Wake Time (TWT) feature allows stations (STAs) to sleep for some intervals
and wake up at a Target Wake Time to send and receive their traffic

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Throughput without Error

 Is the rate at which data is successfully transmitted over

a network or communication channel
 Is measured in bits per second (bps) or megabits per
second (Mbps)
 It reflects the efficiency and performance of the
transmission protocol
 The formula for throughput without error:
 divides the total amount of data transmitted by the total time
taken for the transmission cycle, including all necessary wait
and transmission times

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Throughput Formula

 Where,
 (Distributed Interframe Space - a new transmission can begin only
after DIFS of idle time)
 Backoff Time
 Data Frame Transmission
 SIFS (Short Interframe Space)
 Acknowledgment Frame Transmission

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Components of Throughput Calculation
 Payload Size
 The amount of actual data being transmitted, excluding headers and
control information
 Interframe Spaces
 SIFS (Short Interframe Space)
 A brief time period required between different types of frames, such as data
and acknowledgment frames, to ensure proper reception and processing
 DIFS (Distributed Interframe Space)
 Time interval that a device must wait before attempting to access the
medium after a data transmission
 It is calculated as the sum of Short Interframe Space (SIFS) and twice the Slot
Time

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Components of Throughput Calculation
 Backoff Time
 The time a device waits before attempting to retransmit
after a collision or when the medium is busy. This time is
determined by a uniform distribution within the contention
window size
 Transmission Time
 Data Frame Transmission
 Includes the time required for the preamble, header, and payload data. The
number of symbols needed is calculated based on the payload and header size.
 Acknowledgment Frame Transmission
 Time required to send an acknowledgment frame, including preamble and
header, with a fixed number of symbols
 Error-Free Assumptions
 The throughput calculation assumes an error-free scenario where there
are no retransmissions or data losses
 This simplifies the model by not accounting for retransmission delays
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or error recovery processes
Timing delay of data transmission

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Question

 Determine the throughput in an error-free scenario

for a protocol with a payload size of 256 bytes, given
the following parameters
 Short Interframe Space : 160µs
 Slot time : 52 µs
 Minimum contention window size : 15
 Duration for preamble and header : 560 µs
 Duration of a symbol : 40 µs
 Header size : 36 bytes (long header)

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Solution

 Formula
 Given Parameters
 Payload size : 256 bytes
 Short Interframe Space : 160µs
 Slot time : 52 µs
 Minimum contention window size : 15 (a time period set after a frame
transmission to prevent collisions among stations contending for channel
access)
 Duration for preamble and header : 560 µs
 Duration of a symbol : 40 µs
 Header size : 36 bytes (long header)
 Missing parameters

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Solution

 Data Interframe Spacing Calculation:

 Substituting the given values

 Backoff Time :

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Solution

 Transmission Time of Data Frame :

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Solution

 Transmission Time of ACK Frame :

 Throughput Calculation

TP

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Throughput with Packet Error Rate (PER)
 It measures effective data transfer rate when errors are
present
 It accounts for the actual rate of successful data delivery
considering packet losses and retransmissions
 This metric helps understand the impact of packet errors on
transmission efficiency
 It is essential for optimizing network performance under real-
world conditions with errors

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Throughput with Packet Error Rate (PER)

 Error Impact on Throughput

 When errors occur, retransmission and back-off time increase
exponentially
 Adjusted Throughput Calculation
 Adjust the numerator of the throughput formula by multiplying
with (1 - PER)
 Backoff Interval Calculation

{
( 𝐶 𝑊 𝑚𝑖𝑛 +1 ) × 2 𝑗 − 1 − 1
× 𝑇 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡 , 1≤ 𝑗 ≤ 𝑡h𝑟𝑒𝑠h𝑜𝑙𝑑
𝑇 𝑏𝑜 ( j )= 2
𝐶 𝑊 𝑚𝑎𝑥
× 𝑇 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡 , 𝑗 > 𝑡h𝑟𝑒𝑠h𝑜𝑙𝑑
2

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Throughput with Packet Error Rate (PER)
 Threshold and Parameters
 Threshold is the maximum number of backoff stages,
typically chosen as 6
 Example parameters:
 =1023
 =15
 threshold=6
 threshold=6 because
 Iteration for Convergence
 Iterations continue until the convergence of or until
 Typically, 6 to 10 iterations are sufficient for PER in the
range of 0.1 to 0.2
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 Question
 Determine the throughput in an error-prone scenario
with a Packet Error Rate (PER) of 0.1, given a payload
size of 256 bytes. Use the provided back-off times and
probabilities for different iterations, and compute the
throughput based on the provided formula and values.

Throughput calculation with Error

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Throughput with Packet Error Rate (PER)

 Calculation of 𝛼:

 For
 For
 For
 For
 And so on

Slot time : 52 µs

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46
Solution
 Recompute under PER
 Iterations stop at j=6 for . For PER=0.5, iterate to j=15 for
convergence

Table of for Different Iterations

47 Sum of the last column in Table : =441.97

Solution

 Throughput calculation with Error

 Where:

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Solution

 Compute the throughput with Error

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Path Loss Models for IEEE 802.11ah

 Path loss models are used to estimate the reduction in signal

strength as it travels through different environments
 These models help in designing and optimizing wireless
communication systems by accounting for factors such as
distance, frequency, and the environment

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Outdoor Path Loss Model
 Is a model estimating signal loss in outdoor environments
based on distance, frequency, and antenna height
 Macro Development (AP at 15 meters height)

 Accounts for greater height and frequence impact

 Pico Deployment (AP at 2 meters height)

 Includes higher fixed loss due to closer proximity to obstacles

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Indoor Path Loss Model
 Is a path loss model used for indoor environments that
accounts for signal attenuation due to walls, furniture, and
other obstacles
 It typically employs a two-slope approach with a breakpoint
distance to represent different loss rates for short and long
distances from the transmitter.
 Two-Slope Model
 It Uses a breakpoint distance to model different loss slopes for short
and long distances.

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