SATELLITE COMMUNICATION

OVER VIEW OF SATELLITE SYSTEMS

1
 SATELLITE
• A Satellite in general is any natural or
artificial body moving around a celestial
body such as planets and stars.
• [Link] in 1945- idea of satellite
originated. First Artificial Satellite-
Sputnik-1
 1.1 Introduction
• Large areas of the earth is visible from the satellite, the
satellite can form the star point of a communication net,
simultaneously linking many users who may be widely
separated geographically.
• Provide communication link to remote communities.

• Satellites are used for remote sensing, communication.

• [Link]
7
 1.2 Frequency allocation
• International Telecommunication Union (ITU)-
coordination and planning.
• World divided into 3 regions

• Region-1: Europe, Africa, Russia, Mongolia

• Region-2: North and south America, Greenland.

• Region-3: Asia, Australia, South west pacific

8
1.2 Frequency allocation

9
 1.2 Frequency allocation
o Within regions frequency bands are allotted to various
satellite services.

1. Fixed satellite services (FSS)-C band – 6/4 GHz

• Telephone networks , television signals to cables

2. Broadcasting Satellite services (BSS)-Ku band-

14/12GHz
• Direct broadcast to home or direct to home 10
 Conti..
1. Mobile satellite service

• Land mobile, maritime mobile,

aeronautical mobile

2. Navigational satellite service

• GPS

3. Metrological satellite service

 INTELSAT
• International Telecommunication Satellite (INTELSAT).
 Created in 1964

 Over 140 member countries

 More than 40 investing entities

 Early Bird satellite in 1965

 Six (6) evolutions of INTELSAT satellites between 1965-87

 Geostationary orbit

12
Regions
• IT COVERS 3 MAIN REGIONS
[Link] Ocean Region (AOR),
[Link] Ocean Region (IOR), and
[Link] Ocean Region (POR)
 Satellite Orbits and Trajectories
Definition of an Orbit and a Trajectory :
 A trajectory is a path traced by a moving body, an
orbit is a trajectory that is periodically repeated.
While the path followed by the motion of an artificial
satellite around Earth is an orbit, the path followed by a
launch vehicle is a trajectory called the launch trajectory.
 The motion of different planets of the solar system
around the sun and the motion of artificial satellites
around Earth are examples of orbital motion.
Definition of an Orbit and a Trajectory :

 The term trajectory is associated with a path

that is not periodically revisited.
 The path followed by a rocket on its way to the
right position for a satellite launch or the path
followed by orbiting satellites when they move
from an intermediate orbit to their final
destined orbit are examples of trajectories.
 Satellite Orbits and Trajectories

Example of trajectory – path followed by a

rocket on its way during satellite launch
Example of orbital motion – satellites
revolving around Earth

Example of trajectory – motion of a satellite

from the intermediate orbit to the final orbit
Orbiting Satellites – Basic Principles
The motion of natural and artificial satellites around Earth is
governed by two forces.
One of them is the centripetal force directed towards the centre of
the Earth due to the gravitational force of attraction of Earth and the
other is the centrifugal force that acts outwards from the centre of
the Earth.

Gravitational force and the centrifugal force acting on bodies orbiting Earth
2.2.1 Newton’s Law of Gravitation-1st law
According to Newton’s law of gravitation, every
particle irrespective of its mass attracts every other
particle with a gravitational force whose magnitude
is directly proportional to the product of the masses
of the two particles and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them.
Newton’s law of gravitation
 Newton’s Second Law of Motion
According to Newton’s second law of motion, the force equals
the product of mass and acceleration.
In the case of a satellite orbiting Earth, if the orbiting velocity is
v, then the acceleration, called centripetal acceleration, experienced
by the satellite at a distance r from the centre of the Earth would
be v2/r.
If the mass of satellite is m, it would experience a reaction force
of mv2/r.
This is the centrifugal force directed outwards from the centre of
the Earth and for a satellite is equal in magnitude to the
gravitational force.
 Kepler’s Laws

 Johannes Kepler, gave a set of three empirical

expressions that explained planetary motion.

 Though given for planetary motion, these laws are
equally valid for the motion of natural and artificial
satellites around Earth or for any body revolving
around another body.
 These laws will be discussed with reference to the
motion of artificial satellites around Earth.
 Kepler’s First Law
The orbit of a satellite around Earth is elliptical with the centre
of the Earth lying at one of the foci of the ellipse (Figure 2.6). The
elliptical orbit is characterized by its semi-major axis a and
eccentricity e.
Eccentricity is the ratio of the distance between the centre of the
ellipse and either of its foci (= ae) to the semi-major axis of the
ellipse a.
A circular orbit is a special case of an elliptical orbit where the
foci merge together to give a single central point and the
eccentricity becomes zero.
 Kepler’s First Law

Kepler’s first law

[Link] Kepler’s Second Law
The line joining the satellite and the centre of the Earth sweeps
out equal areas in the plane of the orbit in equal time intervals i.e.
the rate (dA/dt) at which it sweeps area A is constant.
Kepler’s second law is also equivalent to the law of
conservation of momentum, which implies that the angular
momentum of the orbiting satellite given by the product of the
radius vector and the component of linear momentum
perpendicular to the radius vector is constant at all points on the
orbit.
[Link] Kepler’s Second Law

Kepler’s second law

where
vp =velocity at the perigee point
rp =perigee distance
va =velocity at the apogee point
ra =apogee distance
v=satellite velocity at any point in the orbit
r =distance of the point
γ =angle between the direction of motion of the
satellite and the local horizontal
Kepler’s Third Law
According to the Kepler’s third law, also
known as the law of periods, the square of
the time period of any satellite is
proportional to the cube of the semi-major
axis of its elliptical orbit.
 Orbital Parameters

 The satellite orbit, which in general is

elliptical, is characterized by a number of
parameters.
 These not only include the geometrical
parameters of the orbit but also
parameters that define its orientation with
respect to Earth.
 Orbital Parameters
1. Ascending and descending nodes
2. Equinoxes
3. Solstices
4. Apogee
5. Perigee
6. Eccentricity
7. Semi-major axis
8. Right ascension of the ascending node
9. Inclination
10. Argument of the perigee
11. True anomaly of the satellite
12. Angles defining the direction of the satellite
 Ascending and descending nodes

 The satellite orbit cuts the equatorial plane at two points:

 the first, called the descending node (N1), where the satellite passes from
the northern hemisphere to the southern hemisphere, and
 the second, called the ascending node (N2), where the satellite passes from
the southern hemisphere to the northern hemisphere
 Equinoxes:
The inclination of the equatorial plane of
Earth with respect to the direction of the sun,
defined by the angle formed by the line joining
the centre of the Earth and the sun with the
Earth’s equatorial plane follows a sinusoidal
variation and completes one cycle of sinusoidal
variation over a period of 365 days.
 The sinusoidal variation of the angle of inclination is
defined by,
Inclination angle (in degrees) = 23.4 sin 2πt / T

Yearly variation of angular inclination of Earth with the sun

•This expression indicates that the inclination angle is zero for t =
T/2 and T .
•This is observed to occur on 20-21 March, called the spring
equinox, and 22-23 September, called the autumn equinox.
•The two equinoxes are understandably spaced 6 months apart.
•During the equinoxes, it can be seen that the equatorial plane of
Earth will be aligned with the direction of the sun.
•Also, the line of intersection of the Earth’s equatorial plane and the
Earth’s orbital plane that passes through the centre of the Earth is
known as the line of equinoxes.
•The direction of this line with respect to the direction of the sun on
20-21 March determines a point at infinity called the vernal equinox
(Y) (Figure 2.11).
Vernal equinox
Solstices.

•Solstices are the times when the inclination

angle is at its maximum, i.e. 23.4◦.
•These also occur twice during a year on 20-21
June, called the summer solstice, and 21-22
December, called the winter solstice.
Apogee. Apogee is the point on the satellite orbit that
is at the farthest distance from the centre of the Earth.
Apogee distance = a (1 + e)
The apogee distance can also be computed
from the known values of the perigee distance
and velocity at the perigee Vp from
Vp =√2μ/ Perigee distance − 2μ /Perigee distance + Apogee distance

Where Vp = V d cos γ

Perigee distance with V being the velocity of

the satellite at a distance d from the centre of
the Earth.
Perigee.
Perigee is the point on the orbit that is nearest to the
centre of the [Link] perigee distance can be computed
from the known values of orbit eccentricity e and the
semi-major axis a from Perigee distance = a (1 − e).
Eccentricity.
The orbit eccentricity e is the ratio of the
distance between the centre of the ellipse and the
centre of the Earth to the semi-major axis of the
ellipse.
e = apogee − perigee / apogee + perigee

e = apogee − perigee / 2a
Thus e =√(a2 − b2)/a,
where a and b are semi-major and semi-minor
axes respectively.
Semi-major axis. This is a geometrical
parameter of an elliptical orbit. It can, be
computed from known values of apogee
and perigee distances as

a = apogee + perigee / 2
 Right ascension of the ascending node.
The right ascension of the ascending node tells about
the orientation of the line of nodes, which is the line
joining the ascending and descending nodes, with
respect to the direction of the vernal equinox.
 It is expressed as an angle measured from the vernal
equinox towards the line of nodes in the direction of
rotation of Earth. The angle could be anywhere from 0◦
to 360◦.
Computation of the right ascension of the ascending node
•Acquisition of the correct angle of right ascension of
the ascending node (Ω) is important to ensure that the
satellite orbits in the given plane.
•This can be achieved by choosing an appropriate
injection time depending upon the longitude. Angle can
be computed as the difference between two angles.
•One is the angle α between the direction of the vernal
equinox and the longitude of the injection point and the
other is the angle β between the line of nodes and the
longitude of the injection point, as shown in Figure
2.15. Angle β can be computed from
 sin β = cos i sin l / cos l sin i

where ∠i is the orbit inclination and l

is the latitude at the injection point.
 Inclination
• Inclination is the angle that the orbital plane of the
satellite makes with the Earths’s equatorial plane.
•It is measured as follows. The line of nodes divides both
the Earth’s equatorial plane as well as the satellite’s orbital
plane into two halves.
•Inclination is measured as the angle between that half of
the satellite’s orbital plane containing the trajectory of the
satellite from the descending node to the ascending node to
that half of the Earth’s equatorial plane containing the
trajectory of a point on the equator from n1 to n2, where
n1 and n2 are respectively the points vertically below the
descending and ascending nodes.
•The inclination angle can be determined from the latitude l at
the injection point and the angle Az between the projection of
the satellite’s velocity vector on the local horizontal and north.
It is given by
cos i = sinAz cos l
 Argument of the perigee.
This parameter defines the location of the major axis of the satellite
orbit.
It is measured as the angle ω between the line joining the perigee
and the centre of the Earth and the line of nodes from the ascending
node to the descending node in the same direction as that of the
satellite orbit.
 True anomaly of the satellite.

This parameter is used to indicate the position

of the satellite in its orbit.
This is done by defining an angle θ, called the
true anomaly of the satellite, formed by the
line joining the perigee and the centre of the
Earth with the line joining the satellite and the
centre of the Earth
Angles defining the direction of the satellite.
The direction of the satellite is defined by two
angles, the first by angle γ between the direction of
the satellite’s velocity vector and its projection in
the local horizontal and the second by angle Az
between the north and the projection of the
satellite’s velocity vector on the local horizontal
True anomaly of a satellite
Angles defining the direction of the satellite
Problem 1
A satellite is orbiting Earth in a uniform circular
orbit at a height of 630 km from the surface of
Earth. Assuming the radius of Earth and its mass
to be 6370 km and 5.98 × 10^24 kg respectively,
determine the velocity of the satellite (Take the
gravitational constant
G = 6.67 × 10^−11Nm^2/kg^2).
Solution:
Orbit radius R = 6370 + 630 = 7000 km
= 7 000 000m
Also, constant
μ = GM = 6.67 × 10^−11 × 5.98 × 10^24
=39.8 × 10^13 Nm^3/s^2
The velocity of the satellite can be computed
from
V = √μ / R = √39.8 × 10^13 / 7 000 000
= 7.54 km/s
Injection Velocity and Resulting Satellite
Trajectories
The horizontal velocity with which a satellite is injected into space
by the launch vehicle with the intention of imparting a specific
trajectory to the satellite has a direct bearing on the satellite
trajectory.

Satellite’s path where the injection velocity is Satellite’s path where the injection velocity is
equal to the first orbital velocity less than the first orbital velocity
The general expression for the Satellite Velocity
at the perigee point assuming elliptical orbit is:

Where, A- Apogee distance

P- Perigee distance
µ= √ (GM) – Kepler’s constant

a = A+P/2
• First cosmic velocity is one at which the
Apogee distance equals the Perigee distance.

Therefore, Vi = √ (µ/P)

•If injection velocity > first cosmic velocity

the satellite follows Ballistic trajectory and
falls back to Earth.
Satellite’s path where the injection velocity is equal to
the first orbital velocity
• For injection velocity > first cosmic
velocity and less than second cosmic
velocity.
• V >√(µp) and V < √(2µ/p) the orbit is
elliptical and eccentric.(0 < e <1)
• When V = √ (2µP), the apogee distance
becomes infinite and the orbit becomes
parabola, this velocity is known as 2 nd
cosmic velocity(V2).
• At this velocity the Satellite escapes
from Earth’s Gravitational pull.

• If injection is greater than V2, then the

trajectory becomes Hyperbolic and e > 1.

• If injection velocity is further increased a

stage is reached where in the Satellite
suceeds in escaping from Solar System.
Injection Velocity and Resulting Satellite
Trajectories

Satellite’s path where the injection velocity is equal to the second orbital
velocity
 Types of Satellite Orbits
The orbit is characterized by its elements or
[Link] orbital elements of a particular
satellite depend upon its intended application.
The satellite orbits can be classified on the
basis of:
1. Orientation of the orbital plane
2. Eccentricity
3. Distance from Earth
 Orientation of the Orbital Plane

 The orbital plane of the satellite can have

various orientations with respect to the
equatorial plane of Earth.
 The angle between the two planes is called the
angle of inclination of the satellite.
 On this basis, the orbits can be classified as
equatorial orbits, polar orbits and inclined
orbits.
Equatorial orbit
Orientation of the Orbital Plane

Polar orbit
Prograde orbit
Eccentricity of the Orbit
On the basis of eccentricity, the orbits are classified as elliptical and circular
orbits.

Retrograde orbit (a) Elliptical orbit and (b) circular orbit

 Distance from Earth
 Depending upon the intended mission, satellites
may be placed in orbits at varying distances from
the surface of the Earth.
 Depending upon the distance, these are classified
as low Earth orbits (LEOs), medium Earth orbits
(MEOs) and geostationary Earth orbits (GEOs)

LEO, MEO and GEO

ORBITS
• LEO: Satellites in the low Earth orbit (LEO) circle
Earth at a height of around 160 to 500 km above the
surface of the Earth.
• These satellites, being closer to the surface of the
Earth, have much shorter orbital periods and smaller
signal propagation delays. A lower propagation
delay makes them highly suitable for communication
applications.
• Due to lower propagation paths, the power required
for signal transmission is also less, with the result
that the satellites are of small physical size and are
inexpensive to build.
• However, due to a shorter orbital period, of the order
of an hour and a half or so, these satellites remain over
a particular ground station for a short time. Hence,
several of these satellites are needed for 24 hour
coverage.
• One important application of LEO satellites for
communication is the project Iridium, which is a
global communication system conceived by Motorola.
• A total of 66 satellites are arranged in a distributed
architecture, with each satellite carrying 1/66 ofthe
total system capacity. The system is intended to
provide a variety of telecommunication
• Medium Earth orbit (MEO) satellites
orbit at a distance of approximately 10
000 to 20 000 km above the surface of
the Earth. They have an orbital period
of 6 to 12 hours.
• These satellites stay in sight over a
particular region of Earth for a longer
time.
• The transmission distance and
propagation delays are greater than
those for LEO satellites.
• These orbits are generally polar in
nature and are mainly used for
communication and navigation
• A geosynchronous Earth orbit is a prograde orbit
whose orbital period is equal to Earth’s rotational
period.
• If such an orbit were in the plane of the equator
and circular, it would remain stationary with
respect to a given point on the Earth.
• These orbits are referred to as the geostationary
Earth orbits (GEOs).
• For the satellite to have such an orbital velocity,
it needs to be at a height of about 36 000 km, 35
786 km to be precise, above the surface of the
Earth.
In order to remain above the same point on the Earth’s
surface, a satellite must fulfil the following conditions:
1. It must have a constant latitude, which is possible only
at 0◦ latitude.
2. The orbit inclination should be zero.
3. It should have a constant longitude and thus have a
uniform angular velocity, which is possible when the
orbit is circular.
4. The orbital period should be equal to 23 hours 56
minutes, which implies that the satellite must orbit at a
height of 35 786 km above the surface of the Earth.
5. The satellite motion must be from west to east.
Satellites in geostationary orbits play an essential role
in relaying communication and TV broadcast signals
around the globe. They also perform meteorological
and military surveillance functions very effectively.

GEO satellites appear stationary wrt

to a point on Earth
 Orbital Perturbations
 The satellite, once placed in its orbit, experiences various
perturbing torques that cause variations in its orbital
parameters with time.
 These include gravitational forces from other bodies like
solar and lunar attraction, magnetic field interaction, solar
radiation pressure, asymmetry of Earth’s gravitational field
etc.
 Due to these factors, the satellite orbit tends to drift and its
orientation also changes and hence the true orbit of the
satellite is different from that defined using Kepler’s laws.
Orbital Perturbations

 The satellite’s position thus needs to be controlled

both in the east–west as well as the north–south
directions.
 The east–west location needs to be maintained to
prevent radio frequency (RF) interference from
neighbouring satellites.
 Satellite Stabilization
Commonly employed techniques for satellite
attitude control include:
1. Spin stabilization
2. Three-axis or body stabilization
Spin Stabilization
In a spin-stabilized satellite, the satellite
body is spun at a rate between 30 and
100 rpm about an axis perpendicular to
the orbital plane
Spin stabilized satellite
 Three-axis or Body Stabilization

In the case of three-axis stabilization, also known as body

stabilization, the stabilization is achieved by controlling the
movement of the satellite along the three axes, i.e. yaw, pitch
and roll, with respect to a reference

Three-axis stabilization Three-axis stabilized satellite

Comparison between Spin-stabilized and Three-axis Stabilized
Satellites
1. In comparison to spin-stabilized satellites, three-axis stabilized
satellites have more power generation capability and more additional
mounting area available for complex antenna structures.
2. Spin-stabilized satellites are simpler in design and less expensive
than three-axis stabilized satellites.
3. Three-axis stabilized satellites have the disadvantage that the
extendible solar array used in these satellites are unable to provide
power when the satellite is in the transfer orbit, as the array is still
stored inside the satellite during this time.
 Orbital Effects on Satellite’s Performance

 Satellite is revolving constantly around the

Earth. The motion of the satellite has
significant effects on its performance.
 These include the Doppler shift, effect due
to variation in the orbital distance, effect of
solar eclipse and sun’s transit outrage.
Doppler Shift
The geostationary satellites appear stationary with
respect to an Earth station terminal whereas in the case
of satellites orbiting in low Earth orbits, the satellite is
in relative motion with respect to the terminal.
 Variation in the Orbital Distance

Variation in the orbital distance results in variation in

the range between the satellite and the Earth station
terminal.
If a Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) scheme is
employed by the satellite, the timing of the frames within
the TDMA bursts should be worked out carefully so that
the user terminals receive the correct data at the correct
time.
 Solar Eclipse
There are times when the satellites do not receive
solar radiation due to obstruction from a celestial
body.
 During these periods the satellites operate using
onboard batteries.
The design of the battery is such so as to provide
continuous power during the period of the eclipse.
 Sun Transit Outrage
There are times when the satellite passes directly between the
sun and the Earth
 The Earth station antenna will receive signals from the satellite as
well as the microwave radiation emitted by the sun (the sun is a
source of radiation with an equivalent temperature varying
between 6000K to 11000K depending upon the time of the 11-
year sunspot cycle).
 This might cause temporary outrage if the magnitude of the solar
radiation exceeds the fade margin of the receiver.
 The traffic of the satellite may be shifted to other satellites during
such periods.
Sun Transit Outrage

Sun outrage conditions

 Eclipses
An eclipse is said to occur when the sunlight fails to reach the
satellite’s solar panel due to an obstruction from a celestial body.
The major and most frequent source of an eclipse is due to the
satellite coming in the shadow of the Earth . This is known as a
solar eclipse.
The eclipse is total; i.e. the satellite fails to receive any light
whatsoever if it passes through the umbra, which is the dark central
region of the shadow, and receives very little light if it passes
through the penumbra, which is the less dark region surrounding
the umbra
Eclipses

Solar eclipse

Umbra and penumbra

Eclipses

Lunar eclipse
 Look Angles of a Satellite
 The look angles of a satellite refer to the coordinates to which
an Earth station must be pointed in order to communicate with
the satellite and are expressed in terms of azimuth and
elevation angles.
 In the case where an Earth station is within the footprint or
coverage area of a geostationary satellite, it can communicate
with the satellite by simply pointing its antenna towards it.
 The process of pointing the Earth station antenna accurately
towards the satellite can be accomplished if the azimuth and
elevation angles of the Earth station location are known.
 Look Angles of a Satellite
 In order to determine the look angles of a satellite, its precise
location should be known. The location of a satellite is very
often determined by the position of the sub-satellite point.
 The sub-satellite point is the location on the surface of the Earth
that lies directly between the satellite and the centre of the
Earth. To an observer on the sub-satellite point, the satellite will
appear to be directly overhead

Sub-satellite point
 Azimuth Angle
 The azimuth angle A of an Earth station is defined as the
angle produced by the line of intersection of the local
horizontal plane and the plane passing through the Earth
station, the satellite and the centre of the Earth with the true
north

Azimuth angle
 Elevation Angle
The Earth station elevation angle E is the angle between the
line of intersection of the local horizontal plane and the plane
passing through the Earth station, the satellite and the centre
of the Earth with the line joining the Earth station and the
satellite.

Earth station elevation angle

Problems:
1. The difference between the furthest and the closest points in a
satellite’s elliptical orbit from the surface of the Earth is 30 000 km
and the sum of the distances is 50 000 km. If the mean radius of the
Earth is considered to be 6400 km, determine orbit eccentricity.

2. Calculate the orbital period of a satellite moving in an elliptical

orbit having a major axis of 50 000 km. (Take = 39.8 × 1013
Nm2/kg).

3. The elliptical eccentric orbit of a satellite has its semi-major and

semi-minor axes as 25 000 km and 18 330 km respectively.
Determine the apogee and perigee distances.
• Assignment Questions
1. Define and explain three laws of KEPLER to
describe motion of artificial satellites around the earth .
2. Explain all orbital parameters of satellite in detail.
3. Explain different types of satellite orbits.
4. Explain orbital effect on satellite performance.
5. Explain with neat diagram the earth eclipse of
satellite and sun transit outage