CHAPTER 1

History and Overview of

Computer Networks
On completion, the student will be
• Explain history of networking
• Discuss reasons for networking
• Explain what networking mean
• Elaborate the network criteria's
• Distinguish between different network topologies
• Distinguish between different network types
• Distinguish between different network connection
types
• Distinguish between different network devices
• Explain the network components
• Explain what network protocols and standards are
History of Computer Networks
 History of Computer Networking
Focus on some key breakthroughs
• John Von Neumann
• Claude Shannon
• ARPANET
 Von Neumann (1903-1957)
• Major contributions to quantum physics,
functional analysis, set theory,
economics, computer science,
topology, numerical analysis,
hydrodynamics (of explosions),
statistics ...
• Pioneer of modern digital computer
• published (1945) a paper entitled “First Draft of a
report to the EDVAC”
– presented all of the basic elements of a stored-
program computer
 Von Neumann Machine

• Other contributor:
• Konrad Zuse (1936) F

• First Binary Computer

• The first computer to use a binary, rather than decimal, method of operation.
• A memory containing both data and instructions. Also to
allow both data and instruction memory locations to be read
from, and written to, in any desired order
• A calculating unit capable of performing both arithmetic and
logical operations on the data
• A control unit, which could interpret an instruction retrieved
from the memory and select alternative courses of action
based on the results of previous operations (courtesy: [Link])
 Claude Shannon (1916-2001)
• Boolean Algebra:
His 1937 master's thesis,
A Symbolic Analysis of
Relay and Switching Circuits
• Boolean algebra and
binary arithmetic could be
used to simplify the arrangement
of the electromechanical relays
used in telephone switches
• Used arrangements of relays to solve Boolean algebra problems
• Information Theory: In 1948 published A Mathematical Theory of
Communication article. Invented concepts such as “Entropy” of an
information source and “Capacity” of a communication channel.
(courtesy: [Link])
 ARPANET
• In the mid-1960s, mainframe computers in
research organizations were stand-alone devices.
• Computers from different manufacturers were
unable to communicate with one another.
• The Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA)
in the Department of Defense (DOD) was
interested in finding a way to connect computers
together so that the researchers they funded
could share their findings, thereby reducing costs
and eliminating duplication of effort.
 ARPANET
• In 1967, at an Association for Computing
Machinery (ACM) meeting, ARPA presented its
ideas for ARPANET, a small network of connected
computers.
• The idea was that each host computer (not
necessarily from the same manufacturer) would
be attached to a specialized computer, called an
interface message processor (IMP).
• The IMPs, in turn, would be connected to each
other. Each IMP had to be able to communicate
with other IMPs as well as with its own attached
host.
 ARPANET
• By 1969, ARPANET was a reality.
• Four nodes, at the University of California at Los
Angeles (UCLA), the University of California at
Santa Barbara (UCSB), Stanford Research Institute
(SRI), and the University of Utah, were connected
via the IMPs to form a network.
• Software called the Network Control Protocol
(NCP) provided communication between the hosts.
• In 1972, Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn, both of whom
were part of the core ARPANET group, collaborated
on what they called the Internetting Project.
 Reasons for Networking

• Data sharing
• Peripheral Device sharing
• An old, well-known alternative to networking
—passing a disk from machine to machine—is
often called a sneakernet.
What is a computer network?

Definition:
• A network is the interconnection of a set of
devices capable of communication.

13
 Network Criteria
• Performance : can be measured in many ways,
including transit time and response time.
• The performance of a network depends on a
number of factors, including
The number of users,
The type of transmission medium,
The capabilities of the connected hardware, and
 The efficiency of the software.
• Performance is often evaluated by two
networking metrics: throughput and delay.
 Network Criteria

• Reliability: is measured by the frequency of

failure, the time it takes a link to recover from a
failure, and the network’s robustness in a
catastrophe.
• Security: Network security issues include
protecting data from unauthorized access,
protecting data from damage and development,
and implementing policies and procedures for
recovery from breaches and data losses.
 Physical Structures
• Type of Connection
There are two possible types of connections:
point-to-point and multipoint.
A point-to-point connection provides a
dedicated link between two devices.
A multipoint (also called multidrop)
connection is one in which more than two
specific devices share a single link
Spatial – Simultaneous access to a channel
Temporal – Timeshared access
Types of connection
 Physical Topology

• The arrangement or physical layout of

computers, cables, and other components on
the network.
• A network's topology affects its capabilities.
The choice of one topology over another will
have an impact on the:
– Type of equipment that the network needs
– Capabilities of the network
– Growth of the network
– Way the network is managed
 Topologies
• There are four basic types of computer
topology: bus, star, ring and mesh.
Bus Topology
• linear = computers are connected in a straight
line.
• The simplest and most common method of
networking computers.
 Star topology
• cable segments from each computer are
connected to a centralized component called a
hub.
 Topologies
 Ring topology
• Connects computers on a single circle of cable.
• Unlike the bus topology, there are no terminated
ends.
 Mesh topology
• Offers superior cable redundancy and reliability.
• Each computer is connected to every other
computer by separate cabling.
 Hybrid topologies
• Combination of two or more standard topologies.
 Network Types

 Local Area Network

 Privately owned
 Links the devices in a single office, building, or campus
 Limited in size and distance
 Has speed of 100 or 1000 Mbps (today)
LAN
 Network types
Metropolitan Area Networks
Is designed to extend over an entire city
It may be a single network such as a cable
television network, or it may be a means of
connecting a number of LANs in to a larger
network so that resources can be shared LAN-
to-LAN as well as device to device.
Can be wholly owned and operated by a
private company, or it may be a service
provided by a public company, such as a local
telephone company.
MAN
 Wide Area Network

• Provides long-distance transmission of data,

image, audio, and video information over
large geographic areas that may comprise a
country, a continent, or even the whole world.
 INTERNET
• Internetworks: when two or more networks are
connected they become an internetwork, or
internet.

Reading assignment
Reference book
Behrouz Forouzan-Data Communications and
Networking-McGraw-Hill
Science_Engineering_Math (2003)
Page 15
Read Internet and its history
 Classification of networks based on their role

• Two major types: peer-to-peer and client/server

(also called server-based)
Peer-to-Peer Networking
• All computers are peers (equal)
• no centralized control over shared resources
• no single computer has any higher priority to
access, or increased responsibility to provide,
shared resources on the network.
Peer-to-Peer
 Peer-to-peer (cont…)
• every user must also act as a network
administrator, controlling access to the resources
on their machines.
• Peer-to-Peer Networking Advantages
• The following list summarizes the advantages of
peer-to-peer networking:
■ A peer-to-peer network is easy to install and
configure.
■ Machines don’t depend on the presence of a
dedicated server.
■ Users control their own shared resources.
 Peer-to-peer (cont…)

■ Peer-to-peer networking is inexpensive to

purchase and operate.
■ Peer-to-peer networks need no additional
equipment or software beyond a suitable
operating system.
■ No dedicated administrators are needed to
run the network.
■ A peer-to-peer network works best for
networks with 10 or fewer users.
 Peer-to-peer (cont…)
Peer-to-Peer Networking Disadvantages
■ Network security applies to only a single
resource at a time.
Users might be forced to use as many passwords
as there are shared resources.
■ Each machine must be backed up to protect all
shared data.
■ Every time a user accesses a shared resource,
performance of the machine where the
resource resides is reduced.
 Peer-to-peer (cont…)
■ There is no centralized organizational scheme
to locate or control access to data.
■ Access to a shared resource is unavailable if
the machine where the resource resides is
turned off or crashes.
■ A peer-to-peer network doesn’t usually work
well with more than 10 users.
 Server-Based Networks
• A server is a machine with the sole function of
responding to client requests.
• A server is seldom operated by someone
sitting in front of it (and then usually only for
installation, configuration, or management
tasks)
• A server’s main role on a network is to be
continuously available to handle the many
requests
Server based network
 Server based network(cont…)
• Server-based networks provide centralized
control over network resources
Server-Based Networking Advantages
• The following list summarizes the advantages
of server-based networking:
■ Centralized user accounts, security, and
access controls simplify network
administration.
■ More powerful equipment means more
efficient access to network resources.
 Server based network (cont…)
■ Server hardware design is generally more
robust, providing features such as fault-
tolerant hardware and redundant systems.
■ A single password for network logon delivers
access to network-wide resources as specified
in access controls.
■ Server-based networking makes the most
sense for networks with 10 or more users or
any networks where resources are used
heavily.
 Server based network (cont…)
Server-Based Networking Disadvantages
• The following list summarizes the
disadvantages of server-based networking:
■ At the worst, server failure renders a network
unusable; at the least, it results in loss of
network resources.
■ Complex server software requires allocating
expert staff, which increases expenses.
■ Dedicated hardware and specialized software
add to the cost of server-based networking.
 Components of a Network

• The components required to operate a network

can be divided into two major categories.
1. Hardware 2. Software
• The hardware components of a network consist
of the following five items
 Server  Cabling
 Workstation  Network Interface Cards (NIC)
 A concentrator or wiring center (optional)
 Network components (cont…)
The software necessary to operate a network
consists of four items
Network operating system
 Server software
The operating system of the workstation
 Client software
 Network components (cont…)
Hardware
 The Server
• The server functions as the central repository
resources/services the network provides.
• Usually the server is also responsible for
controlling which users on which computers in
the network are granted access to a service.
 Workstations
• A place where the services of the server are used
• Usually not as good as the server in one way or
another
 Network components (cont…)
Cabling
• This is what connects the file server and
workstations. Another phrase for cabling is
transmission media.
• There are various types of transmission media,
including coaxial cable, twisted-pair cable
(both shielded and unshielded), and fiber-
optic.
 Network components (cont…)

• Network interface card (NIC)

• The NIC is located in every workstation on the
LAN as well as in the server.
• It is a board that plugs into one of the
expansion slots on the motherboard of a
workstation and the server, thereby providing a
connector on the back to hook to some sort of
transmission media (including wireless media).
• Acts as a “transmitter” and “receiver” –
transceiver.
 Network components (cont…)
• The Concentrator
• To accommodate multiple workstations, a hub or
central data collecting area is often used, although
certain network architectures such as linear bus
structures do not use hubs or concentrators.
• On certain networks, a hub allows for multiple
connections or splitting of the network cable.
• Two types
• Hubs: share bandwidth but are cheaper
• Switches: conserve bandwidth but are more
expensive
 Network components (cont…)
Software
The Network Operating System
• Software that resides on the server.
• Controls virtually all the activity on the
network.
• The NOS manages access to the resource on
the server and handles security of the
resources on the server.
 Network components (cont…)
The workstation operating system
• The operating system software for each
workstation is loaded at the workstation.
• This software is essential for the workstation to
operate, even if that workstation is not part of a
network
The server software
• Usually loaded on the server
• Provides an interface through the service given to
clients
– Most popular ones are web server, mail server, print
server, file server, database server, etc.
 Network components (cont…)
• The client software
• Used to access the service given by the server
software on the server
• Capable of interfacing with server software
• E.g. web browsers, e-mail clients etc
 Networking Devices
• NIC
• Repeater
• Hub
• Bridge
• Switch
• Router
• Gateway
• Others?-Explore!
 Network devices (cont…)
 Network Interface Card (NIC)
• The Network Interface Card (NIC), also known
as a network adaptor, acts as the interface
between the computer and the physical
network connection.
• A NIC may have either an RJ45 connector or a
BNC connector
 Transceivers
• is a networking device that converts from one
cabling technology to another.
 Network devices (cont…)
Repeater
• A repeater is a device that connects two network
segments and broadcasts data between them.
• It amplifies the signal, thereby extending the
usable length of the bus.
Hub
• A central point of a star topology
• Allows the multiple connection of devices
• In reality a Hub is a Repeater with multiple ports
• Hubs can be active, passive or hybrid.
 Network devices (cont…)
Bridge, Switch and Router
Bridge
• A bridge is a device that acts as an interface
between two sets of segments.
• connect networks that use similar network
technologies
Switch
• A switch is similar to a bridge, except that it
has multiple ports.
• A switch can also be seen as a more intelligent
hub
 Network devices (cont…)
Router
• A router is also used for connecting networks
together.
• Connect networks that use different network
technologies
Gateway
• Allow different networks to communicate by
offering a translation service from one protocol
stack to another
 Protocols and standards
• A protocol is a set of rules that govern data
communications.
• A protocol defines what is communicated, how it
is communicated, and when it is communicated.
• The key elements of a protocol are syntax,
semantics, and timing.
 Syntax: structure or format of the data
 Semantics: the meaning of each section of bits
 Timing : refers to two characteristics: when data
should be sent and how fast they can be sent.
 Protocols and standards (cont..)
• Standards ensure open and competitive market
for equipment manufacturers and in
guaranteeing national and international
interoperability of data and
telecommunications technology and processes.
• Data communication standards fall into two
categories: de facto (meaning "by fact" or "by
convention") and de jure (meaning "by law" or
"by regulation").
Some popular protocols include:
• IP = Internet Protocol
• TCP = Transport Control Protocol
• HTTP = Hyper Text Transfer Protocol
• SMTP = Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
• DNS = Domain Name Service
• UDP = User Datagram Protocol
• FTP = File Transfer Protocol
• ARP = Address Resolution Protocol
• RARP = Reverse Address Resolution Protocol
• DHCP = Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
• POP3 = Post Office Protocol
• SNMP = Simple Network Management Protocol
• SSH = Secure Shell
• TELNET = TErminaL NETwork
THE END OF CHAPTER
ONE
THANK YOU
Any question
 CHAPTER 2
Data
Communications
 Introduction
• Sharing info in a network can be local or
remote
• Between individuals, local communication
usually occurs face to face, while remote
communication takes place over distance.
• The term telecommunication, which includes
telephony, telegraphy, and television, means
communication at a distance (tele is Greek for
“far”).
 Introduction
• The word data refers to information
presented in whatever form is agreed upon by
the parties creating and using the data.
• Data communications are the exchange of
data between two devices via some form of
transmission medium such as a wire cable.
• The effectiveness of a data communications
system depends on four fundamental
characteristics: delivery, accuracy, timeliness,
and jitter.
 Intro…
• Delivery. The system must deliver data to the
correct destination.
• Accuracy. The system must deliver the data
accurately.
• Timeliness. The system must deliver data in a
timely manner. This kind of delivery is called
real-time transmission.
• Jitter. Jitter refers to the variation in the packet
arrival time.
 Communications Model

Figure 2.1 Simplified Communications Model

 Communications Model(Cont…)

 The key elements of the model are as follows:

• Source. This device generates the data to be transmitted.
E.g. PC
• Transmitter: a transmitter transforms and encodes the
information. E.g. Modem
• Transmission system: This can be a single transmission
line or a complex network connecting source and
destination.
• Receiver: The receiver accepts the signal from the
transmission system and converts it into a form that can
be handled by the destination device.
• Destination: Takes the incoming data from the receiver.
 Data Transmission
• Data transmission refers to the movement of
data in form of bits between two or more
digital devices.
• This transfer of data takes place via some form
of transmission media (for example, coaxial
cable, fiber optics etc.)
 Data transmission(cont…)
• Types of Data Transmission
 Data transmission(cont…)
• Parallel transmission
 In parallel transmission, all the bits of data are
transmitted simultaneously on separate
communication lines.
 In order to transmit n bits, n wires or lines are used.
Thus each bit has its own line.
 All n bits of one group are transmitted with each clock
pulse from one device to another i.e. multiple bits are
sent with each clock pulse.
 Parallel transmission is used for short distance
communication.
 As shown in the fig, eight separate wires are used to
transmit 8 bit data from sender to receiver.
 Parallel transmission(cont..)

Advantage of parallel transmission

• It is speedy way of transmitting data as multiple bits are
transmitted simultaneously with a single clock pulse.
Disadvantage of parallel transmission
• It is costly method of data transmission as it requires n
lines to transmit n bits at the same time.
 Data transmission(cont…)
Serial Transmission
• In serial transmission, the various bits of data are
transmitted serially one after the other.
• It requires only one communication line rather than
n lines to transmit data from sender to receiver.
• Thus all the bits of data are transmitted on single
line in serial fashion.
• In serial transmission, only single bit is sent with
each clock pulse.
• Serial transmission is used for long distance
communication.
 Serial Transmission(cont…)

Advantage of Serial transmission

• Use of single communication line reduces the transmission line
cost by the factor of n as compared to parallel transmission.
Disadvantages of Serial transmission
• Use of conversion devices at source and destination end may lead
to increase in overall transmission cost.
• This method is slower as compared to parallel transmission as bits
 Serial Transmission(cont…)

Types of Serial Transmission

• There are two types of serial transmission-
synchronous and asynchronous both these
transmissions use 'Bit synchronization'
• Bit Synchronization is a function that is
required to determine when the beginning
and end of the data transmission occurs.
• Bit synchronization helps the receiving
computer to know when data begin and end
during a transmission. Therefore bit
synchronization provides timing control.
 Serial Transmission(cont…)
Asynchronous Transmission
• it sends one byte of data at a time.
• Bit synchronization between two devices is made
possible using start bit and stop bit.

• Addition of start and stop increase the number of

data bits. Hence more bandwidth is consumed in
asynchronous transmission.
 Serial Transmission(cont…)
• There is idle time between the transmissions
of different data bytes. This idle time is also
known as Gap.

Application of Asynchronous Transmission

 keyboard type-terminals
best suited to Internet traffic
 Serial Transmission(cont…)
Advantages of Asynchronous transmission
• Cheaper
• Easy error control
• Support sources having different bit rates
• The transmission can start as soon as data
byte to be transmitted becomes available.
• Moreover, this mode of data transmission in
easy to implement.
 Serial Transmission(cont…)
Disadvantages of asynchronous transmission
• This method is less efficient and slower than
synchronous transmission due to the
overhead of extra bits and insertion of gaps
into bit stream.
• Successful transmission inevitably depends on
the recognition of the start bits. These bits can
be missed or corrupted.
 Serial Transmission(cont…)
Synchronous Transmission
• Synchronous transmission does not use start
and stop bits.
• In this method bit stream is combined into
longer frames that may contain multiple bytes.
• There is no gap between the various bytes in
the data stream.
 Serial Transmission(cont…)

• bit synchronization is established between sender

& receiver by 'timing' the transmission of each bit.
• In order to receive the data error free, the
receiver and sender operates at the same clock
frequency.
 Serial Transmission(cont…)
Application of Synchronous transmission
• Synchronous transmission is used for high speed
communication between computers.
Advantage of Synchronous transmission
• This method is faster as compared to asynchronous as
there are no extra bits (start bit & stop bit) and also
there is no gap between the individual data bytes.
• Disadvantages of Synchronous transmission
• Costly because It requires local buffer storage at the
two ends of line to assemble blocks
• sender and receiver have to operate at the same clock
frequency
Comparison between Serial and Parallel transmission
Comparison between Asynchronous and
Synchronous.
 2.3 CONCEPTS AND TERMINOLOGY

• Transmission Terminology
• Guided media: the waves are guided along a
physical path
• Unguided media: also called wireless, provide a
means for transmitting electromagnetic waves but
do not guide them
• Direct link: is used to refer to the transmission
path between two devices in which signals
propagate directly from transmitter to receiver
with no intermediate devices, other than
amplifiers or repeaters used to increase signal
strength.
 CONCEPTS AND TERMINOLOGY(cont…)
• Point to point: provides a direct link between two
devices and those are the only two devices sharing
the medium.
• Multipoint: more than two devices share the same
medium.
• Simplex transmission: signals are transmitted in only
one direction; one station is transmitter and the other
is receiver.
• Half-duplex: both stations may transmit, but only one
at a time.
• Full-duplex: both stations may transmit
simultaneously.
CONCEPTS AND TERMINOLOGY(cont…)
 Analog and Digital data transmission
Analog and Digital Data
• Data can be analog or digital.
• The term analog data refers to information that is
continuous;
E.g. Analog Watch

• Digital data refers to information that has discrete states.

E.g. Digital watch

• Analog data, such as the sounds made by a human voice,

take on continuous values.
 Analog and Digital data transmission (cont…)
• When someone speaks, an analog wave is
created in the air.
• The human voice captured by a microphone
and converted to an analog signal or sampled
and converted to a digital signal.
• Digital data can be converted to a digital signal
or modulated into an analog signal for
transmission across a medium.
 Analog and Digital DT (cont…)
Analog and Digital Signals
• Like the data they represent, signals can be either
analog or digital.
• An analog signal has infinitely many levels of intensity
over a period of time.
• As the wave moves from value A to value B, it passes
through and includes an infinite number of values
along its path.
• A digital signal, on the other hand, can have only a
limited number of defined values.
• Although each value can be any number, it is often as
simple as 1 and 0.
 Analog and Digital DT (cont…)

• Comparison of analog and digital signals

 Analog and Digital DT (cont…)
Periodic and Nonperiodic
• Both analog and digital signals can take one of two
forms: periodic or nonperiodic
• A periodic signal completes a pattern within a
measurable time frame, called a period, and repeats
that pattern over subsequent identical periods.
• The completion of one full pattern is called a cycle.
• A nonperiodic signal changes without exhibiting a
pattern or cycle that repeats over time.
• In data communications, we commonly use periodic
analog signals and nonperiodic digital signals.
 Analog and Digital DT (cont…)
PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS
• Periodic analog signals can be classified as simple or
composite.
• A simple periodic analog signal, a sine wave, cannot
be decomposed into simpler signals.
• A composite periodic analog signal is composed of
multiple sine waves.

A sine wave
 Analog and Digital DT (cont…)

• A sine wave can be represented by three

parameters: the peak amplitude, the frequency,
and the phase. These three parameters fully
describe a sine wave.
• The peak amplitude of a signal is the absolute
value of its highest intensity, proportional to the
energy it carries.
Period and Frequency
• Period refers to the amount of time, in seconds, a
signal needs to complete 1 cycle.
• Frequency refers to the number of periods in 1 s.
 Analog and Digital DT (cont…)

Two signals with the same amplitude and phase, but different frequencies
 Analog and Digital DT (cont…)

Units of period and frequency

Example 2.1
• The power we use at home has a frequency of
60 Hz (50 Hz in Europe). The period of this sine
wave can be determined as follows:
 Analog and Digital DT (cont…)
• More About Frequency

Phase
• The term phase, or phase shift, describes the
position of the waveform relative to time 0.
• It indicates the status of the first cycle.
 Analog and Digital DT (cont…)
• Phase is measured in degrees or radians [360º
is 2π rad, 1º is 2π/360 rad, and 1 rad is
360/(2π)].
• A phase shift of 360º corresponds to a shift of
a complete period; a phase shift of 180°
corresponds to a shift of one-half of a period;
and a phase shift of 90º corresponds to a shift
of one-quarter of a period
 Analog and Digital DT (cont…)

Three sine waves with the same amplitude and

frequency, but different phases
 Analog and Digital DT (cont…)
Looking at Figure 2.7, we can say that
• A sine wave with a phase of 0° starts at time 0
with a zero amplitude. The amplitude is
increasing.
• A sine wave with a phase of 90° starts at time 0
with a peak amplitude. The amplitude is
decreasing.
• A sine wave with a phase of 180° starts at time
0 with a zero amplitude. The amplitude is
decreasing.
 Analog and Digital DT (cont…)
Another way to look at the phase is in terms
of shift or offset. We can say that
• A sine wave with a phase of 0° is not shifted.
• A sine wave with a phase of 90° is shifted to
the left by cycle. However, note that the signal
does not really exist before time 0.
• A sine wave with a phase of 180° is shifted to
the left by cycle. However, note that the signal
does not really exist before time 0.
 Analog and Digital DT (cont…)

Example
• A sine wave is offset 1/6 cycle with respect to
time 0. What is its phase in degrees and
radians?
Solution
• We know that 1 complete cycle is 360°.
Therefore, 1/6 cycle is
 Analog and Digital DT (cont…)

Wavelength
• Wavelength is another characteristic of a signal
traveling through a transmission medium.
• Wavelength binds the period or the frequency
of a simple sine wave to the propagation speed
of the medium.
• While the frequency of a signal is independent of the
medium, the wavelength depends on both the frequency
and the medium.
• The wavelength is the distance a simple signal can travel
in one period.

• The propagation speed of electromagnetic signals

depends on the medium and on the frequency of the
signal.
• The wavelength is normally measured in
micrometers (microns) instead of meters.
• For example, the wavelength of red light
(frequency = 4 × 1014) in air is

• In a coaxial or fiber-optic cable, however, the

wavelength is shorter (0.5 μm) because the
propagation speed in the cable is decreased.
 Time and Frequency Domains

• The time-domain plot shows changes in signal

amplitude with respect to time (it is an
amplitude-versus-time plot).
• To show the relationship between amplitude
and frequency, we can use what is called a
frequency-domain plot.
• A frequency-domain plot is concerned with
only the peak value and the frequency.
• Changes of amplitude during one period are
not shown.
• The time domain and frequency domain of three sine waves
 Composite Signals

• A composite signal is made of many simple

sine waves.

Bandwidth
• The range of frequencies contained in a
composite signal is its bandwidth.
• The bandwidth is normally a difference
between two numbers.
• For example, if a composite signal contains
frequencies between 1000 and 5000, its
bandwidth is 5000 − 1000, or 4000.
DIGITAL SIGNALS
• In addition to being represented by an analog
signal, information can also be represented by
a digital signal.
• For example, a 1 can be encoded as a positive
voltage and a 0 as zero voltage.
Bit Rate
• Most digital signals are nonperiodic, and thus
period and frequency are not appropriate
characteristics.
• Another term—bit rate (instead of frequency)—
is used to describe digital signals.
• The bit rate is the number of bits sent in 1s,
expressed in bits per second (bps).
• Figure 2.16 shows the bit rate for two signals.
Example
• Assume we need to download text documents
at the rate of 100 pages per second. What is the
required bit rate of the channel?
Solution
• A page is an average of 24 lines with 80
characters in each line. If we assume that one
character requires 8 bits, the bit rate is
 TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT
• Signals travel through transmission media,
which are not perfect.
• The imperfection causes signal impairment.
• This means that the signal at the beginning of
the medium is not the same as the signal at the
end of the medium.
• What is sent is not what is received
• Three causes of impairment are

• Attenuation means a loss of energy.

• When a signal, simple or composite, travels
through a medium, it loses some of its energy
in overcoming the resistance of the medium.
Decibel
• To show that a signal has lost or gained strength,
engineers use the unit of the decibel.
• The decibel (dB) measures the relative strengths
of two signals or one signal at two different points.
Distortion
• Distortion means that the signal changes its
form or shape.
• Distortion can occur in a composite signal made
of different frequencies.
• Each signal component has its own propagation
speed (see the next section) through a medium
and, therefore, its own delay in arriving at the
final destination.
Noise
• Noise is another cause of impairment.
• Several types of noise, such as thermal noise,
induced noise, crosstalk, and impulse noise,
may corrupt the signal.
 Transmission Media
• can be broadly defined as anything that can
carry information from a source to a destination.
 free space,
 metallic cable,
 or fiber-optic cable.
• transmission media can be divided into two
broad categories: guided and unguided.
• Guided media include twisted-pair cable, coaxial
cable, and fiber-optic cable.
• Unguided medium is free space.
Transmission media category
 GUIDED MEDIA

• are those that provide a conduit from one device

to another
• A signal traveling along any of these media is
directed and contained by the physical limits of
the medium.
• Twisted-pair and coaxial cable use metallic
(copper) conductors that accept and transport
signals in the form of electric current.
• Optical fiber is a cable that accepts and
transports signals in the form of light.
 GUIDED MEDIA (cont…)
• Twisted-Pair Cable
• consists of two conductors (normally copper),
each with its own plastic insulation, twisted
together

• Two wires are twisted together, one to carry

signals and the other used as ground reference.
• The receiver uses the difference between the
two.
 GUIDED MEDIA (cont…)
Unshielded Versus Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable
• The most common twisted-pair cable used in
communications is referred to as unshielded
twisted-pair (UTP).
• IBM has also produced a version of twisted-
pair cable for its use, called shielded twisted-
pair (STP).
• STP cable has a metal foil or braided mesh
covering that encases each pair of insulated
conductors.
 GUIDED MEDIA (cont…)
• Although metal casing improves the quality of
cable by preventing the penetration of noise
or crosstalk, it is bulkier and more expensive.
GUIDED MEDIA (cont…)
 GUIDED MEDIA (cont…)
Connectors
• The most common UTP connector is RJ45 (RJ
stands for registered jack)
• The RJ45 is a keyed connector, meaning the
connector can be inserted in only one way.
 GUIDED MEDIA (cont…)
Performance
 GUIDED MEDIA (cont…)
Common Applications
A local loop in telephone lines
Digital subscriber line (DSL)
Local Area networks (10Base-T and 100Base-T)
 GUIDED MEDIA (cont…)
Coaxial Cable
• carries signals of higher frequency ranges than
those in twisted pair cable
• Instead of having two wires, coax has a central
core conductor of solid or stranded wire (usually
copper) enclosed in an insulating sheath, which
is, in turn, encased in an outer conductor of
metal foil, braid, or a combination of the two.
 GUIDED MEDIA (cont…)

Coaxial Cable Standards

• Coaxial cables are categorized by their Radio
Government (RG) ratings.

Connectors
• The most common type of connector used
today is the Bayonet Neill-Concelman (BNC)
connector.
 GUIDED MEDIA (cont…)

Performance
 GUIDED MEDIA (cont…)

Applications
• Television distribution (cable TV)
• Long distance telephone
transmission(10,000 voice channels per
cable)
• Local Area Networks
 GUIDED MEDIA (cont…)
Fiber-Optic Cable
• An optical fiber is a thin(2-125 micrometer),
flexible medium capable of conducting an
optical ray.
– Made of an ultra pure fused silica ,glass fiber or
even plastic.
• It has a cylindrical shape and consists of three
concentric sections : the core , the cladding ,
and the jacket.
 GUIDED MEDIA (cont…)
• How Optical Fiber Works

Bending of light ray

 GUIDED MEDIA (cont…)
• As the figure shows, if the angle of incidence I
is less than the critical angle, the ray refracts
and moves closer to the surface.
• If the angle of incidence is equal to the critical
angle, the light bends along the interface.
• If the angle is greater than the critical angle, the
ray reflects (makes a turn) and travels again in
the denser substance.
• Optical fibers use reflection to guide light
through a channel.
 GUIDED MEDIA (cont…)
• A glass or plastic core is surrounded by a
cladding of less dense glass or plastic.
• The difference in density of the two materials
must be such that a beam of light moving
through the core is reflected off the cladding
instead of being refracted into it.
 GUIDED MEDIA (cont…)
Fiber Optics Propagation Modes

Propagation modes
 GUIDED MEDIA (cont…)
Multimode: refers to the variety of angles that will
reflect. Multiple propagation path exists, signal
elements spread out in time, and hence limits the
data rate.
Single Mode : when the fiber core radius is reduced
, fewer angles will reflect. By reducing the radius
of the core to the order of wave length, only a
single angle or mode can pass (the axial ray).
Multimode graded index: by varying the refractive
index of the core , rays may be focused more
efficiently than multimode.
GUIDED MEDIA (cont…)

Modes
 GUIDED MEDIA (cont…)
Multimode step-index fiber: the density of the core
remains constant from the center to the edges.
• A beam of light moves through this constant
density in a straight line until it reaches the
interface of the core and the cladding.
• At the interface, there is an abrupt change due to
a lower density; this alters the angle of the
beam’s motion.
• The term step-index refers to the suddenness of
this change, which contributes to the distortion of
the signal as it passes through the fiber.
 GUIDED MEDIA (cont…)
Optical Fiber Types

Connectors
 GUIDED MEDIA (cont…)
Applications
As a backbone for networks
Some cable TV companies use a combination
of optical fiber and coaxial cable
Local-area networks such as 100Base-FX
network (Fast Ethernet) and 1000Base-X
 GUIDED MEDIA (cont…)
Advantages and Disadvantages of Optical Fiber
Advantages
 High bandwidth
 Lass signal attenuation
 Immunity to EMI
 Resistance to corrosive materials
 Light weight
 Greater immunity to tapping
Disadvantage
 Installation and maintenance
 Unidirectional light propagation
 Cost
 UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS

• Transport electromagnetic waves without using

a physical conductor.
• Signals are normally broadcast through free
space and thus are available to anyone who has
a device capable of receiving them.

Electromagnetic spectrum for wireless communication

 UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS

• Transmission and reception are achieved by means of

antennas.
– For transmission, an antenna radiates electro-magnetic
radiation in the air.
– For reception, the antenna pickups electro magnetic waves
from the surrounding medium.
– The antenna plays a key role.
• Basically two types of configuration
 Transmitting antenna puts out a focused electromagnetic beam
– Transmitter and receiver must be carefully aligned.
– Allows point –to-point communication
 Transmitted signal spreads in all directions.
– Can be received by many antennas.
 Propagation Methods

Ground Propagation Line-of-sight propagation

 Below 2 MHz above 30 MHz
 Example: AM radio FM radio, TV, Cellular radio
Terrestrial microwave
Satellite communication
Sky propagation
 Form 2 to 30 MHz
 Citizen Band(CB)
Bands
 Wireless transmission techniques
• We can divide wireless transmission into three broad
groups: radio waves, microwaves, and infrared
waves.
Radio Waves
• Although there is no clear-cut demarcation
– Waves ranginging in frequencies between 3KHz and 1
GHz =radio waves
– Waves ranginging in frequencies between 1 GHz and 300
GHz =microwaves
• However, the behavior of the waves, rather than the
frequencies, is a better criterion for classification.
Characteristics of Radio waves
Omni directional (When an antenna transmits
radio waves, they are propagated in all
directions)
i.e. there is no need to align the sending and
receiving antennas to align straight forward.
Disadvantage = EMI
Radio waves, particularly those of low and
medium frequencies, can penetrate walls.
This characteristics has advantage as well as
disadvantages
• Based on the wavelength, strength, and the purpose of
transmission, we can have several types of antennas.
• Omni directional Antenna

Applications
– Multicasting= one sender but many receivers.
– E.g. AM and FM radios, Television, Maritime radio, Cordless phones and
paging
Microwaves
• They have frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz
• are unidirectional (i.e. sending and receiving antennas
need to be aligned).
Characteristics
 Its propagation is line of sight
 Repeaters are often needed for long distance
communication.
 Very high-frequency microwaves cannot penetrate walls.
 The microwave band is relatively wide, almost 299 GHz.
 Use of certain portions of the band requires permission
from authorities.
Unidirectional Antenna
• Two types of antennas are used for microwave
communications: the parabolic dish and the
horn.
Applications
• are very useful when unicast (one-to- one)
communication is needed between the sender
and the receiver.
• are used in cellular phones satellite networks
and wireless LANs.
Satellite Microwave remember Terrestrial
• A satellite is basically a microwave relay station.
– Used to link one or more earth stations.
• Satellite communication configuration
– Point-to-point configuration
– Broadcast configuration
• The satellite must have a period of rotation
equal to the earth's period of rotation to
remain stationary with respect to its position
over the earth.
• This match occurs at a height of 35,784 km.
 Frequency Bands
Transponders
• A single orbiting satellite operate on a number
of frequency bands called transponders.
• Satellite receivers transmission on one
frequency band (uplink) , amplifies or repeats
the signal and transmits it on another
frequency (downlink).
Band Frequency Downlink GHz Uplink GHz

C 4/6 GHz 3.7-4.2 5.925-6.425

Ku 12/14 GHz 11.7-12.2 14.0-14.5

Ka 18/28 GHz 17.7-21.0 27.5-31.0

• Two satellites using the same frequency band, if close
enough together, will interfere with each other.
• To avoid this problem, current standards require a 40
spacing (angular displacement as measured from the
earth) in the 4/6 GHz band and a 30 spacing at 12/14 GHz.
• Thus, the number of possible satellites is quite limited.
Applications
• Television distribution
• Long-distance telephone transmission
• Private business networks etc
Drawbacks
• Long propagation delay
• Inherently broadcasting facility
Infrared
• Infrared waves with frequencies from 300 GHz to
400 THz (wavelengths from 1 mm to 770 nm), can
be used for short-range communication.
• Infrared waves, having high frequencies, cannot
penetrate walls.
• advantageous = prevents interference between
one system and another; a short-range
communication system in one room cannot be
affected by another system in the next room.
• However, this same characteristic makes infrared
signals useless for long-range communication.
• we cannot use infrared waves outside a building
because the sun’s rays contain infrared waves that can
interfere with the communication.
Applications
 For data transmission
 for communication between devices such as
keyboards, mice, PCs, and printers. (IrDA standard)
 The standard originally defined a data rate of 75 kbps
for a distance up to 8 m.
 The recent standard defines a data rate of 4 Mbps.
THE END OF CHAPTER
TWO
THANK YOU
Any query
 CHAPTER 3
Communications network
architecture
 Introduction
• Network Architecture is the complete framework
of an organization's computer network.
• The diagram of the network architecture
provides a full picture of the established network
with detailed view of all the resources accessible.
• It includes hardware components used for
communication, cabling and device types,
network layout and topologies, physical and
wireless connections, implemented areas and
future plans.
 Intro (cont…)
• In addition, the software rules and protocols
also constitute to the network architecture.
• This architecture is always designed by a
network manager/administrator with
coordination of network engineers and other
design engineers.
 Network Line Configuration
• Line configuration refers to the way two or more
communication devices attached to a link.
• There are two possible types of connections:
point-to-point and multipoint.
Point-to-Point
• A point-to-point connection provides a
dedicated link between two devices.
• The entire capacity of the link is reserved for
transmission between those two devices.
• Most point-to-point connections use an actual
length of wire or cable to connect the two
ends, but other options, such as microwave or
satellite links, are also possible.
Multipoint
• A multipoint (also called multi-drop) connection
is one in which more than two specific devices
share a single link.
 Networking and internetworking devices

• Hubs
• Switches
• Bridges
• Routers
• Gateways
• CSU/DSU
• Modems
• Network interface cards (NICs)
• Wireless access points (WAPs)
• ISDN adapters
• Transceivers
• Firewalls
Hubs
Simple in terms of cost
they provide everything needed to create a small
network
Hubs with more ports are available for networks
that require greater capacity.

A workgroup hub A high-capacity or a high-destiny Hub

• Computers connect to a hub via a length of
twisted-pair cabling.
• It has ports to connect computers and uplink ports
to connect it to other hub on another network.
• Are two types: Active and passive
Active Hubs
• regenerate a signal before forwarding it
• requires a power supply
Passive Hubs
• do not need power and they don’t regenerate the
data signal.
Switches
• more efficient than hubs and are far more
desirable for today’s network environments

• computers connect to a switch via a length of

twisted-pair cable.
• a switch forwards data only to the port on which
the destination system is connected
• It looks at the Media Access Control (MAC)
addresses of the devices connected to it to
determine the correct port.
• A MAC address is a unique number that is
stamped into every NIC.
Bridges
• Sometimes it is necessary to divide networks
into subnets to reduce the amount of traffic on
each larger subnet or for security reasons.
• Once divided, the bridge connects the two
subnets and manages the traffic flow between
them.
• A bridge functions by blocking or forwarding
data, based on the destination MAC address
written into each frame of data.
• Bridges “learn” the MAC addresses of devices
on connected networks by “listening” to
network traffic and recording the network
from which the traffic originates.
Routers
• Routers make internetworking possible, and in
view of this, they warrant detailed attention.
• Routers are network devices that literally route
data around the network.
• By examining data as it arrives, the router can
determine the destination address for the data;
then, by using tables of defined routes, the
router determines the best way for the data to
continue its journey.
• Unlike bridges and switches, which use the
hardware-configured MAC address to determine
the destination of the data, routers use the
software-configured network address to make
decisions.
• The basic requirement for a router is that it must
have at least two network interfaces. If they are
LAN interfaces, the router can manage and route
the information between two LAN segments.
• More commonly, a router is used to provide
connectivity across wide area network (WAN) links.
Gateways
• The term gateway is applied to any device, system, or
software application that can perform the function of
translating data from one format to another.
• The key feature of a gateway is that it converts the
format of the data, not the data itself.
• No matter what their use, gateways slow the flow of
data and can therefore potentially become
bottlenecks.
• The conversion from one data format to another
takes time, and so the flow of data through a
gateway is always slower than the flow of data
without one.
CSUs/DSUs
• A Channel Service Unit/Data Service Unit (CSU/DSU)
acts as a translator between the LAN data format and
the WAN data format.
• Such a conversion is necessary because the
technologies used on WAN links are different from
those used on LANs.
• A CSU/DSU has physical connections for the LAN
equipment, normally via a serial interface, and
another connection for a WAN.
• Some router manufacturers are now including the
CSU/DSU functionality in routers or are providing the
expansion capability to do so.
Modems
• Modem is a contraction of the terms modulator and
demodulator.
• Modems perform a simple function: They translate digital
signals from a computer into analog signals that can travel
across conventional phone lines.
• The fastest modem available on the market today has a
maximum speed of 56Kbps
• Modems are available as internal devices that plug into
expansion slots in a system; external devices that plug into
serial or USB ports; PCMCIA (personal computer memory
card interface adapter) cards designed for use in laptops;
and specialized devices designed for use in systems such as
handheld computers.
 Modem

An internal modem (left) and a PCMCIA modem (right).

 Network Interface Cards (NICs)

• NICs—sometimes called network cards—are

the mechanisms by which computers connect
to a network.
• NICs come in all shapes and sizes, and they
come in prices to suit all budgets.
• Many different terms are used to refer to NICs,
such as network card, network adapter, and
LAN adapter. All refer to the same thing.
 Types of NICs

An expansion NIC A PCMCIA NIC

A built-in network interface on a laptop system

ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) Terminal Adapters
• When the speed provided by a modem just isn’t
enough, you must seek alternatives.
• One of the speedier options available is an ISDN
link.
• To use ISDN, you need a device called an ISDN
terminal adapter
• ISDN terminal adapters are available as add-in
expansion cards installed into computers,
external devices that connect to the serial
interfaces of PC systems, or modules in a router.
• Remember that a modem converts a signal
from digital to analog and vice versa. An ISDN
terminal adapter translates the signal between
two digital formats.

An external ISDN adapter An internal ISDN adapter

Wireless Access Point (WAP)
• Wireless access points, referred to as either
WAPs or wireless APs, are a transmitter and
receiver (transceiver) device used for wireless
LAN (WLAN) radio signals.
• A WAP is typically a separate network device
with a built-in antenna, transmitter, and
adapter.
• WAPs use the wireless infrastructure network
mode to provide a connection point between
WLANs and a wired Ethernet LAN.
WAPs connect WLANs and a wired Ethernet LAN
Transceivers
• The term transceiver does not necessarily
describe a separate network device but rather
an integrated technology embedded in devices
such as network cards.
• Although transceivers are found in network
cards, they can be external devices as well.
• As far as networking is concerned, transceivers
can ship as a module or chip type.
• Chip transceivers are small and are inserted into a
system board or wired directly on a circuit board.
• Module transceivers are external to the network
and are installed and function similarly to other
computer peripherals, or they may function as
standalone devices.
• There are many types of transceivers: RF
transceivers, fiber-optic transceivers, Ethernet
transceivers, wireless (WAP) transceivers, and more.
• Though each of these media types is different, the
function of the transceiver remains the same.
• Each type of the transceiver used has different
characteristics such as the number of ports
available to connect to the network and
whether full-duplex communication is
supported.
• Listed with transceivers in the CompTIA
objectives are media converters.
• Media converters are a technology that allows
administrators to interconnect different media
types—for example, twisted pair, fiber, and thin
or thick coax—within an existing network.
Firewalls
• A firewall is a networking device, either hardware
or software based, that controls access to your
organization’s network.
• This controlled access is designed to protect data
and resources from outside threat.
• To do this, firewalls are typically placed at entry/exit
points of a network.
• For example, a firewall might be placed between an
internal network and the Internet. After the firewall
is in place, it can control access in and out of that
point.
 Network Topologies
 Topology refers to the way in which multiple devices
are interconnected via communication links.
 There are two types of topology: physical and logical.
 Physical topology is the mapping of the nodes
(computers) of a network and the physical connections
between them – i.e., the layout of wiring, cables, the
locations of nodes, and the interconnections between
the nodes and the cabling or wiring system.
 Logical topology is bound to network protocols and
describe how data is moved across the network.
 There are five main network topologies; bus, ring,
mesh, star, and hybrid.
189
 Cont…
 Bus topology:-
 Stations are attached in a linear-bus fashion to a single
cable known as trunk also called backbone or segment.
 A transmission from any station propagates the length of
the medium in both directions and can be received by all
other stations.
 The message that is transmitted contains the address of the
station and the data.
 Each station monitors the medium and copies packets
addressed to it.
 Because all stations share a common transmission link, only
one station can successfully transmit at a time, so some
form of medium access control technique is needed to
regulate access. 190
• Three concepts to be noted:
 Sending the signal
 Signal bounce
 Terminator

Bus topology
 Cont..
Advantages of a Bus Topology
 Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a bus.
 Requires less cable length than a star topology.
Disadvantages of a Bus Topology
 Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the
main cable.
 Terminators are required at both ends of the
backbone cable.
 Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network
shuts down.

192
 Cont…
 Ring topology:-
 Consists of a set repeaters joined by point -to- point
links in a closed loop (circle).
 Unlike the bus topology there are no terminated
ends
 The links are unidirectional, that is, data are
transmitted in one direction only, and all oriented in
the same way.
 The data circulates around the ring in one direction
(clockwise or counter clockwise).
 Data are transmitted in packets inserted into the
ring by the stations. 193
The packet contains source and destination
address as well as other control information
and user data.
 As a packet circulates, the destination station
copies the data. Typically, the packet
continues to circulate until it returns to the
source station, where it is absorbed, removing
it from the ring.
Since the medium is shared it needed to
control the order and timing of packet
transmission.
Ring topology 195
 Cont…
Advantages
 Equal access for all users
 Each workstation has full access speed to the
ring
Disadvantages
 As workstation numbers increase performance
diminishes slightly
 Costly Wiring
 Difficult Connections
 Expensive Adaptor Cards
196
 Cont…
Star topology:
 Each station is directly connected to a
common Central Switch /hub.
Each station transmits its message to the
intermediary device (hub/switch) and the
device delivers the message to the correct
distribution by identifying the address.
 The problem with star is, if the intermediary
device fails there will not be any
communication.

197
Star topology
198
 Cont…

Advantages of a Star Topology

 Easy to install and wire
 No disruptions to the network, then connecting or
removing devices will be easy.
 Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.
Disadvantages of a Star Topology
 Requires more cable length than a linear topology.
 If the hub or concentrator fails, nodes attached are
disabled.
 More expensive than linear bus topologies because
of the cost of the concentrators.
199
 Cont…
Mesh topology:-
A mesh topology network offers superior
redundancy and reliability.
This type of topology is not commonly used
for most computer networks, as it is difficult
and expensive to have redundant connection
to every computer.
However, this type of topology is commonly
used for wireless networks.

200
Mesh Topology
201
 Cont…
Hybrid topology:
The hybrid topology is a type of network
topology that is composed of one or more
interconnections of two or more networks that
are based upon different physical topologies.
For example a combination of star and bus or
star and ring topologies.

202
star-bus topology star-ring topology
 Connection-oriented and connectionless
services
• Connection-oriented communication
 includes the steps of
 setting up a call from one computer to another,
 transmitting/receiving data, and
 then releasing the call
Example: a voice phone call
 However, the network connecting the computers
is a packet switched network
 Connection-oriented communication is done in
one of two ways over a packet switched
network: with and without virtual circuits.
• Connectionless:
Connectionless communication is just packet
switching where no call establishment and
release occur.
A message is broken into packets, and each
packet is transferred separately.
Moreover, the packets can travel different
route to the destination since there is no
connection.
 Comparison

Feature Connectionless Connection-oriented

How is data sent? one packet at a time as continuous stream of packets

Do packets follow same virtual circuit: yes

No
route? without virtual circuit: no

Are resources reserved virtual circuit: yes

No
in network? without virtual circuit: no

Are resources reserved

No yes
in communicating hosts?

Can data sent

experience variable Yes yes
latency?
 Cont…
Is connection
No yes
establishment done?
Is state information
virtual circuit: yes
stored at network No
without virtual circuit: no
nodes?
What is impact of only packets at node all virtual circuits through node
node/switch crash? are lost fail

virtual circuit: a virtual circuit

What addressing
full source and number
information is needed
destination address without virtual circuit: full
on each packet?
source and destination address
virtual circuit: easy if sufficient
Is it possible to adapt
buffers allocated
sending rate to hard to do
without virtual circuit: harder to
network congestion?
do
THE END OF CHAPTER
THREE
THANK YOU
Any query
 CHAPTER 4
Communications
Network Protocols
209
 Introduction
The Layered Architecture Approach
• In earlier days, many of the networks that were built
used different hardware and software implementations,
as a result, they were incompatible and it became
difficult for networks using different specifications to
communicate with each other.
• To address the problem of networks being incompatible
and unable to communicate with each other, we need
some way of structured model.
• A widely accepted structuring technique is layering.
• The communication functions are partitioned into a
hierarchical set of layers. 210
Introduction (cont…)
• Each layer performs a related subset of the functions
required to communicate with another system,
relying on the next-lower layer to perform more
primitive functions, and to conceal the details of
those functions, as it provides services to the next-
higher layer.
• Ideally, the layers should be defined so that changes
in one layer do not require changes in the other
layers. (Independent but related)
• Thus, we have decomposed one problem into a
number of more manageable sub-problems.
• In this chapter, we will see two famous models: OSI
and TCP/IP. 211
Protocols
• For two computers, in a computer network, to
communicate must talk the same language
(follow the same protocol).
• A network protocol is a formal set of rules,
conventions and data structure that governs how
computers and other network devices exchange
information over a network.
• In other words, protocol is a standard procedure
and format that two data communication devices
must understand, accept and use to be able to
talk to each other. 212
 Overview of the OSI reference model
• OSI (Open System Interconnect)
• It is a network model developed by ISO (International
Standards Organization)
• The OSI model was designed to promote
interoperability by creating guidelines for network
data transmission between computers that have
different hardware vendors, software, operating
systems, and protocols.
Note

ISO is the organization;

OSI is the model.
213
 OSI reference Model (Cont…)
• The OSI reference model architecture divides
network communication into seven layers.
• Each layer covers different network activities,
equipment, or protocols.
• Figure below represents the layered
architecture of the OSI reference model.

214
The OSI model

215
 OSI Model (cont…)
• The principles that were applied to arrive at the seven
layers can be briefly summarized as follows:
 Each layer should perform a well-defined function.
 A layer should be created where a different abstraction is
needed.
 The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye
toward defining internationally standardized protocols.
 The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the
information flow across the interfaces.
 The number of layers should be large enough that
distinct functions need not be thrown together in the
same layer out of necessity and small enough that the
architecture does not become unwieldy. 216
 OSI reference Model (Cont…)
How Layers work?
• Each layer provides some service or action that prepares the data
for delivery.
• The lowest layers (1 and 2) define the network's physical media
and related tasks.
• The highest layers define how applications access
communication services.
• The higher the layer, the more complex is its task.
• The layers are separated from each other by boundaries called
interfaces.
• All requests are passed from one layer, through the interface, to
the next layer.
• Each layer builds upon the standards and activities of the layer
below it. 217
 Relationships among OSI reference model
layers
• Each layer provides services to the next-higher
layer and shields the upper layer from the details
of how the services below it are actually
implemented.
• At the same time, each layer appears to be in
direct communication with its associated layer on
the other computer.
• This provides a logical, or virtual, communication
between peer layers, as shown in next slide
218
Cont…

219
 The Physical Layer

• The physical layer coordinates the functions

required to carry a bit stream over a physical
medium.
• It deals with the mechanical and electrical
specifications of the interface and transmission
media.
• It also defines the procedures and functions that
physical devices and interfaces have to perform
for transmission to occur.

220
 The Physical Layer (cont…)

• The physical layer is also concerned with the following:

❑ Physical characteristics of interfaces and media
characteristics of the interface between the devices and
the transmission media. It also defines the type of
transmission media.
❑ Representation of bits. To be transmitted, bits must be
encoded into signals—electrical or optical.
The physical layer defines the type of encoding (how 0s
and 1s are changed to signals).
❑ Data rate. The transmission rate—the number of bits sent
each second—is also defined by the physical layer.
In other words, the physical layer defines the duration of a
bit, which is how long it lasts.
221
 The Physical Layer(cont…)

❑Synchronization of bits. the sender and the

receiver clocks must be synchronized.
❑ Line configuration. The physical layer is
concerned with the connection of devices to the
media. point-to-point configuration or multipoint
configuration
❑ Physical topology. The physical topology defines
how devices are connected to make a network.
❑ Transmission mode. The physical layer also
defines the direction of transmission between
two devices: simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex.
222
 The Data Link Layer
• The data link layer transforms the physical
layer, a raw transmission facility, to a reliable
link.
• It makes the physical layer appear error-free to
the upper layer (network layer).
• Other responsibilities of the data link layer
include the following:
❑ Framing. The data link layer divides the stream
of bits received from the network layer into
manageable data units called frames.
223
 The Data Link Layer (cont…)
❑ Physical addressing. If frames are to be distributed to
different systems on the network, the data link layer
adds a header to the frame to define the sender and/or
receiver of the frame.
❑ Flow control. The data link layer imposes a flow control
mechanism to prevent overwhelming the receiver by a
fast sender.
❑ Error control. The data link layer adds reliability to the
physical layer by adding mechanisms to detect and
retransmit damaged or lost frames.
❑ Access control. When two or more devices are
connected to the same link, data link layer protocols are
necessary to determine which device has control over
the link at any given time. 224
 The Network Layer

• is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a

packet, possibly across multiple networks (links).
• Whereas the data link layer oversees the delivery of the
packet between two systems on the same network (link), the
network layer ensures that each packet gets from its point of
origin to its final destination.
• If two systems are connected to the same link, there is
usually no need for a network layer.
• However, if the two systems are attached to different
networks (links) with connecting devices between the
networks (links), there is often a need for the network layer
to accomplish source-to-destination delivery.
• Other responsibilities of the network layer include the
following: 225
 The Network Layer (cont…)
❑Logical addressing. The physical addressing implemented
by the data link layer handles the addressing problem
locally.
 If a packet passes the network boundary, we need another
addressing system to help distinguish the source and
destination systems.
 The network layer adds a header to the packet coming from
the upper layer that, among other things, includes the logical
addresses of the sender and receiver.
❑Routing. When independent networks or links are
connected together to create internetworks the
connecting devices (called routers or switches) route or
switch the packets to their final destination.
• One of the functions of the network layer is to provide
this mechanism. 226
 The Transport Layer

• The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process

delivery of the entire message.
• A process is an application program running on the host.
 Whereas the network layer oversees source-to-destination
delivery of individual packets, it does not recognize any
relationship between those packets. It treats each one
independently, as though each piece belonged to a separate
message, whether or not it does.
• The transport layer, on the other hand, ensures that the
whole message arrives intact and in order, overseeing
both error control and flow control at the source-to-
destination level.
• Other responsibilities of the transport layer include the
following:
227
 The Transport Layer (cont…)
❑Service-point addressing. The transport layer header
must include a type of address called a service-point
address (or port address).
 The network layer gets each packet to the correct
computer; the transport layer gets the entire message to
the correct process on that computer.
❑ Segmentation and reassembly. A message is divided
into transmittable segments, with each segment
containing a sequence number.
 These numbers enable the transport layer to
reassemble the message correctly upon arriving at the
destination and to identify and replace packets that
were lost in transmission.
228
 The Transport Layer (cont…)
❑ Connection control. The transport layer can be
either connectionless or connection-oriented.
❑ Flow control. Like the data link layer, the
transport layer is responsible for flow control.
However, flow control at this layer is performed
end to end rather than across a single link.
❑ Error control. Like the data link layer, the
transport layer is responsible for error control.
However, error control at this layer is performed
process-to-process rather than across a single
link.
229
 The Session Layer

• The services provided by the first four layers (physical, data

link, network and transport) are not sufficient for some
processes. The session layer is the network dialog
controller.
• It establishes, maintains, and synchronizes the interaction
between communicating systems.
• Specific responsibilities of the session layer include the
following:
❑ Dialog control. The session layer allows two systems to
enter into a dialog. It could be either halfduplex (one way
at a time) or full-duplex (two ways at a time) mode.
❑Synchronization. The session layer allows a process to add
checkpoints (synchronization points) into a stream of data.
230
 The Presentation Layer

• The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax

and semantics of the information exchanged between
two systems.
• Specific responsibilities of the presentation layer
include the following:
❑Translation. Because different computers use different
encoding systems, the presentation layer is
responsible for interoperability between these
different encoding methods.
❑ Encryption. To carry sensitive information a system
must be able to assure privacy.
❑ Compression. Data compression reduces the number
of bits contained in the information. 231
 The Application Layer

• The application layer enables the user, whether human or software,

to access the network.
• It provides user interfaces and support for services such as electronic
mail, remote file access and transfer, shared database management,
and other types of distributed information services.
• Specific services provided by the application layer include the
following:
❑ Network virtual terminal. A network virtual terminal is a software
version of a physical terminal and allows a user to log on to a remote
host.
❑ File transfer, access, and management (FTAM). This application allows
a user to access files in a remote host.
❑ E-mail services. This application provides the basis for e-mail
forwarding and storage.
❑ Directory services. This application provides distributed database
sources and access for global information about various objects and
232
services.
Summary of OSI Layers

233
 TCP/IP Reference model
• The TCP/IP(Transfer Control protocol over Internet
protocol) protocol suite was developed prior to
the OSI model.
• Therefore, the layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite
do not match exactly with those in the OSI model.
• The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as
four software layers built upon the hardware.
• Today, however, TCP/IP is thought of as a five-layer
model with the layers named similarly to the ones
in the OSI model.
• Figure below shows both configurations. 234
Layers in the TCP/IP Protocol Suite

235
TCP/IP and OSI model

236
 Imaginary internet
• The diagram below shows our imaginary internet that
is used to show the purpose of each layer.
• We have six links and four routers (R1 to R4). We have
shown only two computers, A and B.

237
 Physical Layer

• TCP/IP does not define any specific protocol for the

physical layer.
• It supports all of the standard and proprietary
protocols.
• At this level, the communication is between two hops
or nodes, either a computer or router.
• The unit of communication is a single bit.
• When the connection is established between the two
nodes, a stream of bits is flowing between them.
• The physical layer, however, treats each bit
individually.
238
 Communication at the physical layer
Legend Source Destination

A R1 R3 R4 B
Physical Physical
layer layer
Link 1 Link 3 Link 5 Link 6

011 ... 101

01
1.
..
10
1

011 ... 101 011 ... 101

239
Note

The unit of communication at the physical

layer is a bit.

240
 Data Link Layer

• TCP/IP does not define any specific protocol for the

data link layer either.
• It supports all of the standard and proprietary
protocols.
• At this level, the communication is also between
two hops or nodes.
• The unit of communication however, is a packet
called a frame.
• A frame is a packet that encapsulates the data
received from the network layer with an added
header and sometimes a trailer.
241
 Communication at the Data linklayer

Legend Source Destination D Data H Header

A R1 R3 R4 B
Data link Data link

Physical Physical
Link 1 Link 3 Link 5 Link 6

D2 H2
Frame
D2 ame
Fr

H2

D2 H2 D2 H2
Frame Frame

242
Note

The unit of communication at the data link

layer is a frame.

243
 Network Layer

• At the network layer (or, more accurately, the internetwork

layer), TCP/IP supports the Internet Protocol (IP).
• The Internet Protocol (IP) is the transmission mechanism
used by the TCP/IP protocols.
• IP transports data in packets called datagrams, each of which
is transported separately.
• Datagrams can travel along different routes and can arrive out
of sequence or be duplicated.
• IP does not keep track of the routes and has no facility for
reordering datagrams once they arrive at their destination.
• Communication at the network layer is end to end while the
communication at the other two layers are node to node.

244
 Network layer (cont…)
• The core protocols of the Network Layer are IP, ARP, ICMP,
and IGMP.
• The Internet Protocol (IP) is a routable protocol responsible
for IP addressing and the fragmentation and reassembly of
packets.
• The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is responsible for
the resolution of the Internet Layer address to the Network
Interface Layer address, such as a hardware address.
• The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is
responsible for providing diagnostic functions and reporting
errors or conditions regarding the delivery of IP packets.
• The Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) is
responsible for the management of IP multicast groups.
245
 Communication at the network layer

Legend Source Destination D Data H Header

A R1 R3 R4 B
Network Network

Data link Data link

Physical Physical

D3 H3
Datagram

D3 H3
Datagram 246
Note

The unit of communication at the network

layer is a datagram.

247
 Transport Layer
• There is a main difference between the transport
layer and the network layer.
• Although all nodes in a network need to have the
network layer, only the two end computers need to
have the transport layer.
• The network layer is responsible for sending
individual datagrams from computer A to computer B.
• The transport layer is responsible for delivering the
whole message, which is called a segment, a user
datagram, or a packet, from A to B.
• A segment may consist of a few or tens of datagrams.
248
 Transport Layer (cont…)
• The core protocols of the Transport Layer are TCP and the
User Datagram Protocol (UDP).
• TCP provides a one-to-one, connection-oriented, reliable
communications service.
• TCP is responsible for the establishment of a TCP connection,
the sequencing and acknowledgment of packets sent, and the
recovery (retransmission) of packets lost during transmission.
• UDP provides a one-to-one or one-to-many, connectionless,
unreliable communications service.
• UDP is used
– when the amount of data to be transferred is small (such as the
data that would fit into a single packet),
– when the overhead of establishing a TCP connection is not desired,
– when the applications or upper layer protocols provide reliable
delivery. 249
 Communication at transport layer
A Legend Source Destination D Data H Header B
Transport Transport
R1 R3 R4
Network Network

Data link Data link

Physical Physical

D4 H4
Segment

D4 H4
Segment
250
Note

The unit of communication at the transport

layer is a segment, user datagram, or a
packet, depending on the specific protocol
used in this layer.

251
 Application Layer

• The application layer in TCP/IP is equivalent to

the combined session, presentation, and
application layers in the OSI model.
• The application layer allows a user to access
the services of our private internet or the
global Internet.
• Many protocols are defined at this layer to
provide services such as electronic mail, file
transfer, accessing the World Wide Web, and
so on.
252
 Application Layer (cont…)

• The most widely known Application Layer protocols

are those used for the exchange of user information:
• The HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is used to
transfer files that make up the Web pages of the
World Wide Web.
• The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is used for
interactive file transfer.
• The Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is used for
the transfer of mail messages and attachments.
• Telnet, a terminal emulation protocol, is used for
remote login to network hosts.
253
 Application Layer (cont…)

• Additionally, the following Application Layer

protocols help facilitate the use and
management of TCP/IP networks:
• The Domain Name System (DNS) is used to
resolve a host name to an IP address.
• The Simple Network Management Protocol
(SNMP) is used between network management
console and network devices (routers, bridges,
and intelligent hubs) to collect and exchange
network management information.
254
 Communication at application layer
A B
Application Legend Source Destination D Data H Header Application

Transport Transport
R1 R3 R4
Network Network

Data link Data link

Physical Physical

D5 D5
Message

D5 D5
Message 255
Note

The unit of communication at the

application layer is a message.

256
 TCP/IP Core Protocols
• The TCP/IP protocol component that is
installed in your network operating system is a
series of interconnected protocols called the
core protocols of TCP/IP.
• All other applications and other protocols in
the TCP/IP protocol suite rely on the basic
services provided by the following protocols:
IP, ARP, ICMP, IGMP, TCP, and UDP.

257
 TCP/IP Core Protocols(cont…)

Core TCP/IP Protocols 258

OSI versus TCP/IP

259
 Two reasons were mentioned for this decision.
• First, TCP/IP has more than one transport-
layer protocol, that can perform Some of the
functionalities of the session layer.
• Second, the application layer is not only one
piece of software, i.e. Many applications can
be developed at this layer.

260
 Lack of OSI Model’s Success
1. OSI was completed when TCP/IP was fully in place
and a lot of time and money had been spent on the
suite; changing it would cost a lot.
2. Some layers in the OSI model were never fully
defined.
 For example, although the services provided by the
presentation and the session layers were listed in the
document, actual protocols for these two layers were not
fully defined, nor were they fully described, and the
corresponding software was not fully developed.
3. When OSI was implemented by an organization in a
different application, it did not show a high enough
level of performance 261
End of
Chapter Four
Any Query
262
 CHAPTER 4
LANs AND WANs
 Local Area Networks
Typical features
 Small geographic area: it can be a room, building, a
campus.
 High reliability
 High data rate: 10 Mbps-10 Gbps
 Privately owned : WANs needs to lease transmission
facilities from ISPs but LANs not.
Parameters that characterize a LAN
 Topology
 Transmission Media and Access methods
 Medium Access Control Techniques
 Topology
 Topology defines how
nodes/stations are
connected
 Typical LAN topologies:
 Bus/Tree
 All nodes are connected
to a common medium
 Star
 All nodes are connected
to a central node
 Ring
 Nodes form a ring by
point-to-point links to
adjacent neighbors.
 TREE TREE
 that is identical to the bus topology,
except that branches with multiple
nodes are possible in this case.
Transmission Media
 Transmission medium used in a LAN include
• Twisted pair, Coaxial cable, Optical fiber, Wireless
Topology Transmission Media

BUs Coaxial

Ring Twisted-pair, Optical Fiber

Star Twisted-pair, Optical Fiber

Medium Access Control
methods
 CSMA/CD : Carrier Sense Multiple Access with
Collision Detection
 Token passing
 CSMA/CA: Carrier Sense Multiple Access with
Collision Avoidance
others
 FDMA: Frequency Division Multiple Access
 TDMA: Time Division Multiple Access
 CDMA: Code Division Multiple Access
• CSMA/CD
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Detection
 Collision- Two stations talking at once
 Detects activity on the wire and reacts to
collisions
 It has a scary name, but it’s a normal
function of Ethernet
 Normally CSMA/CD networks are half-duplex,
meaning that while a device sends
information, it cannot receive at the time.
Token Passing
 All stations are logically
Connected in the form
of a ring.
 Control of the access
to the medium is
performed using a
token; a special bit
pattern.
 Token is circulated in a
round robin manner. Holder
of token has the right to transmit.
 Is a type of transmission technique used in Token Ring and FDDI
networks.
Token Passing
CSMA/CA
 Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Avoidance (CSMA/CA)
 Sender sends a short frame called Request to
send RTS (20 bytes) to the destination. RTS also
contains the length of the data frame.
 Destination station responds with a short (14
bytes) clear to send (CTS), the sender starts
sending the data frame.
 If collision occurs, CTS frame is not received
within a certain period of time.
LAN Transmission Methods
fall into three classifications: unicast, multicast,
and broadcast.
 Unicast transmission: a single packet is sent from
the source to a destination on a network.
 Multicast transmission: consists of a single data
packet that is copied and sent to a specific subset
of nodes on the network.
 Broadcast transmission: consists of a single data
packet that is copied and sent to all nodes on the
network.
 Ethernet LAN Technologies
What you’ll learn?
• Categorize LAN technologies
Ethernet
– 10 MBPS Ethernet (Legacy Ethernet)
– 100 MBPS Ethernet (Fast Ethernet - IEEE 802.3u)
– 1000 MBPS Ethernet (Gigabit Ethernet - IEEE
802.3z)
– 10 GBPS Ethernet
Ethernet Evolution
 Was developed in the 1970s by Robert
Metcalfe and David Boggs.
• First implemented by the Digital Equipment,
Intel, and Xerox group, referred to as DIX.
• DIX was basis for IEEE 802.3 specification,
released in 1980.
• Later, 802.3 extended to 802.3u (Fast
Ethernet), 802.3z (Gigabit Ethernet over Fiber),
and 802.3ab (Gigabit Ethernet over UTP).
Advantages of Ethernet LAN
technology
• It is easy to install and upgrade at moderate cost
• Simplicity and ease of maintenance
• Technology is available
from many sources and
is very well known
• Ability to incorporate
new technology
• Reliability
• It offers a variety of cabling options
• It works very well in networks with only occasional
heavy traffic
Disadvantage of Ethernet
LAN technology
• Heavy traffic can slow down the network
• A break in the main cable can bring down large
parts of the network
• Troubleshooting bus topology is difficult
The three well known Ethernet technologies are:-
• Legacy Ethernet 10 Mbps
• Fast Ethernet 100 Mbps
• Gigabit Ethernet 1000 Mbps and beyond
10 MBPS Ethernet (Legacy Ethernet)
There are three types of Legacy/10Mbps Ethernet:-
Coaxial Cable Based Ethernet(10 Base 5 & 10
Base 2 )
Twisted Pair Cable Based Ethernet(10 Base T )
Fiber Optic Cable Based Ethernet(10 Base F )
Note: Ethernet CABLE SPECIFICATIONS

 BASE (baseband)
⁻ Single frequency using the entire medium
• Broadband uses many frequencies , sharing the medium
100 megabit Ethernet
 100BASE-TX
 “Fast Ethernet”
 Category 5(or better) twisted pair copper wires
 Maximum cable length of 100 meters
 Half Duplex (100 Mbps) and Full Duplex (200 Mbps)
 100BASE-FX
 Pair of optical fiber
 Multimode fiber maximum lengths
 400 meters (half-duplex), 2 kilometers (full-duplex)
 Single-mode fiber maximum lengths
 More than 2 kilometers
Gigabit Ethernet
 1000BASE-T
 Gigabit Ethernet over
Category 5 twisted pair cable
 Usually see Cat 5e or better Cat 5e Cat 7
 Uses all four pairs
 Looks just like 10BASE-T and 100BASE-TX
 1000BASE-X
 Gigabit Ethernet over fiber
 Many different standards
 1000BASE-LX - long wavelength laser- over 5 kilometers
 1000BASE-SX - short wavelength laser -550 meter
distance
10 Gigabit Ethernet over Fiber
 10GBASE-SR – Short Range
 Multimode fiber – 300 meters, with the right fiber
 Older fiber might go 80 meters
 10GBASE-LR – Long Range
 Single-mode fiber
 10 kilometers to 25kilometers
 10GBASE-ER – Extended Range
 Single-mode
 40 kilometers
10 Gigabit Ethernet over the WAN
 10GBASE-SW, 10GBASE-LW, 10GBASE-EW
 Integrate 10 Gig Ethernet into the WAN
 SONET (Synchronous optical networking) and SDH
(Synchronous Digital Hierarchy)
 Same fiber and distances as 10GBASE-SR,
10GBASE-LR, and 10GBASE-ER
10 Gig Ethernet over Copper
 10GBASE-T
 Twisted pair cables
 Cat 6 – 55 meters
 Cat 6a – 100 meters
 What Is a WAN?

• Covers a relatively broad geographic area and

that often uses transmission facilities provided
by common carriers, such as telephone
companies.
• WAN technologies generally function at the
lower three layers of the OSI reference model:
the physical layer, the data link layer, and the
network layer
WAN Technologies Operate at the Lowest Levels of the OSI Model
 Types of WAN circuits
• Point to point

• Circuit switched
• Packet Switching
 WAN Virtual Circuits

• A virtual circuit is a logical circuit created within a

shared network between two network devices.
• Two types of virtual circuits exist: switched virtual
circuits (SVCs) and permanent virtual circuits
(PVCs).
• SVCs are virtual circuits that are dynamically
established on demand and terminated when
transmission is complete.
• PVC is a permanently established virtual circuit
that consists of one mode: data transfer. PVCs are
used in situations in which data transfer between
devices is constant.
 WAN Devices

• WAN Switch
• Access Server (Gateway)
• Modem
• CSU/DSU
• ISDN Terminal Adapter
End of
Chapter Five
Any Query
290
 CHAPTER 6

Client – Server Computing

 Client Vs Server
• The client–server model of computing is a
distributed application that partitions tasks or
workloads between the providers of a resource
or service, called servers, and service
requesters, called clients.
• Often clients and servers communicate over a
computer network on separate hardware, but
both client and server may reside in the same
system.
• Fig 6.1 Client server model
• A server machine is a host that is running one
or more server programs which share their
resources with clients.
• A client does not share any of its resources,
but requests a server’s content or service
function.
• Clients therefore initiate communication
sessions with servers which await incoming
requests.
 Web - Technologies
• In a web based communication there happen a lot of
request and response functionalities.
• The server uses different technologies to process
clients requests.
• Those technologies are called the server side
programs.
• Examples of server side programs include:
PHP(Hyper text preprocessing language), ASP(Active
server page) , servlets
• This above listed programs and others help the server
to execute the request of the client and respond the
necessary output.
• On the other hand a client needs to have
client side programs like HTML, CSS, Java
script and other scripting language programs.
• This programs uses the client to request the
sever and get a response.
Basic Client–Server Application Programming
• Server and client applications often use sockets
to initiate communication sessions and perform
data and/or message exchange in a request–
response manner.
• Basic socket-based solutions enable one
connection to be established between a client
and a server at a time only.
• The idea behind this simple solution is
graphically illustrated in Fig. 6.2 and is
described step-by-step in the context of both
UDP and TCP socket based connectivity.
Fig. 6.2 Client–server communication steps
 Socket Programming

• A socket is one of the most fundamental

technologies of computer networking.
• Sockets allow applications to communicate
using standard mechanisms built into network
hardware and operating systems.
• Although network software may seem to be a
relatively new “Web” phenomenon, socket
technology actually has been employed for
roughly two decades.
• A socket represents a single connection
between exactly two pieces of software.
• More than two pieces of software can
communicate in client/server or distributed
systems (for example, many Web browsers can
simultaneously communicate with a single Web
server) but multiple sockets are required to do
this.
• Sockets are bidirectional, meaning that either
side of the connection is capable of both sending
and receiving data.
• Libraries implementing sockets for Internet
Protocol use TCP for streams, UDP for datagrams,
and IP itself for raw sockets.
 Multi-threaded Server Applications
• A server application capable of handling
multiple simultaneous clients can be built by
making use of both multi-threading support
and socket-based communications.
• Although theoretically infinite, the number of
clients that a server can handle
simultaneously is, in fact, limited.
• Indeed, the processing resources of the
operating system and the physical machine on
which the server application runs, as well as
transport capacity of the network over which
data is exchanged, limit the number of
independent communication sessions
established and managed simultaneously.
• The multi-threaded TCP server application
makes use of a specially built socket
communicating thread class which, given the
communication socket-based link has been
established, exchanges messages with the client
application.
 CHAPTER 7
Data security and integrity

304
 Network Security
• Security is
about well-being (integrity) and
 about protecting property or interests from
intrusions, stealing or wire-tapping (privacy).
• In order to do that, in a hostile environment,
we need to restrict access to our assets.
• To grant access to a few, we need to know
whom we can trust and we need to verify the
credentials (authenticate) of those we allow
to come near us.
305
• Computer security is the protection of data,
networks and computing power.
• The protection of data (information security) is the
most important.
• The protection of networks is important to prevent
loss of server resources as well as to protect the
network from being used for illegal purposes.
• Generally, in the computer industry, Computer
security refers to techniques for ensuring that data
stored in a computer cannot be read or
compromised by any individuals without
authorization. 306
• Computer security rests on confidentiality, integrity, and
availability. (Three Security Goals)
• Confidentiality is the concealment of information or
resources.
– The need for keeping information secret arises from the use of
computers in sensitive fields such as government and industry.
• Integrity refers to the trustworthiness of data or
resources, and it is usually phrased in terms of
preventing improper or unauthorized change.
• Availability refers to the ability to use the information
or resource desired.
– Availability is an important aspect of reliability as well as of system
design because an unavailable system is at least as bad as307no
system at all.
• Security is a huge subject, because modern
computer systems are complex and the
connectivity of the Internet means that
millions of people can try to break into
networked systems.
• Computer systems are vulnerable to many
threats that can inflict various types of
damage resulting in significant losses.
• This damage can range from errors harming
database integrity to fires destroying entire
computer centers.
308
• A threat is a potential violation of security.
• The effects of various threats vary considerably:
some affect the confidentiality or integrity of
data while others affect the availability of a
system. Environments can be hostile because of:
• Physical threats - weather, natural disaster,
bombs, power failures, etc.
• Human threats - stealing, trickery, bribery,
spying, sabotage, accidents.
• Software threats - viruses, Trojan horses, logic
bombs, denial of service.
309
• The cardinal rule of security is that “No one
thing makes a computer secure”.
• Making a computer secure requires a list of
different actions for different reasons.
• There is a secondary rule that says security is
an on going process.
• No matter how well a system is designed, if it
is never changed, that gives any potential
infiltrator all the time in the world to examine
the security for flaws.
310
• The following are some of the security threats
that we can face when using computer systems.
Fraud and theft
Loss of Physical and Infrastructure Support
Threats to Personal Privacy
Malicious Code
Malicious Crackers
Etc.
• When there is a security threats actually
happen we call them security attacks. 311
• For the first few decades of their existence,
computer networks were primarily for
sending e-mail and for sharing printers.
• Under these conditions, security did not get a
lot of attention.
• But now, as millions of ordinary citizens are
using networks for banking, shopping, and
filing their tax returns, network security is
looming on the horizon as a potentially
massive problem.
312
• Network security problems can be divided roughly
into four closely intertwined areas:
Confidentiality, authentication, nonrepudiation,
and integrity control.
• Confidentiality, also called Secrecy, has to do with
keeping information out of the hands of
unauthorized users.
– This is what usually comes to mind when people think
about network security.
• Authentication deals with determining whom you
are talking to before revealing sensitive
information or entering into a business deal. 313
• Non-repudiation deals with signatures: How do
you prove that your customer really placed an
electronic order if he/she disproves the order?
• Finally, how can you be sure that a message you
received was really the one sent and not
something that a malicious adversary modified
in transit or concocted?

314
• Network security can be classified as Active and
Passive attacks.
• Passive attacks mean the eavesdropping on, or
monitoring of, transmissions.
• The goal of the opponent is to obtain information
that is being transmitted with out modification.
• Two types of attacks are involved here: release-
of-message contents and traffic analysis.

315
• Active attacks involve some modification of the
data stream or the creation of a false stream and
can be subdivided into four categories: masquerade
(pretend), replay, modification of messages, and
denial of service.
• The following four general categories of attack:
• Interruption: An asset of the system is destroyed or
becomes unavailable or unusable.
• This is an attack on availability. Examples include
destruction of a piece of hardware, such as a hard
disk, the cutting of a communication line, or the
disabling of the file management system. 316
• Interception: An unauthorized party gains access to an
asset.
• This is an attack on confidentiality.
• The unauthorized party could be a person, a program,
or a computer.
• Examples include wiretapping to capture data in a
network, and the illicit copying of files or programs.
• Modification: An unauthorized party not only gains
access to but tampers with an asset.
• This is an attack on integrity.
– Examples include changing values in a data file, altering a
program so that it performs differently, and modifying the
content of messages being transmitted in a network. 317
• Fabrication: An unauthorized party inserts
counterfeit (forged) objects into the system.
• This is an attack on authenticity.
– Examples include the insertion of spurious
messages in a network or the addition of records
to a file.

318
 Security Measures
• Before getting into the solutions themselves, it
is worth spending a few moments considering
where in the protocol stack network security
belongs.
• There is probably no one single place.
• Every layer has something to contribute.
• In the physical layer, wiretapping can be foiled
by enclosing transmission lines in sealed tubes
containing gas at high pressure.

319
• Any attempt to drill into a tube will release some
gas, reducing the pressure and triggering an
alarm.
• Some military systems use this technique.
• In the data link layer, packets on a point-to-point
line can be encrypted as they leave one machine
and decrypted as they enter another.
• All the details can be handled in the data link
layer, with higher layers oblivious to what is going
on.
320
• This solution breaks down when packets have to
traverse multiple routers, however, because
packets have to be decrypted at each router,
leaving them vulnerable to attacks from within
the router.
• Also, it does not allow some sessions to be
protected (e.g., those involving on-line purchases
by credit card) and others not.
• Nevertheless, link encryption, as this method is
called, can be added to any network easily and is
often useful.
321
• In the network layer, firewalls can be installed to
keep good packets and bad packets out.
• IP security also functions in this layer.
• In the transport layer, entire connections can be
encrypted, end to end, that is, process to process.
• For maximum security, end-to-end security is
required.
• Finally, issues such as user authentication and non-
repudiation can only be handled in the application
layer.
• The following are some of the solutions for network
security. 322
 Cryptography

• Some security services can be implemented

using cryptography.
• Cryptography, a word with Greek origins, means
“secret writing.”
• However, we use the term to refer to the
science and art of transforming messages to
make them secure and immune to attacks.

323
 Encryption
• Except for physical layer security, nearly all
security is based on cryptographic principles.
Hence let’s discuss about encryption first.
• Encryption is said to occur when data is passed
through a series of mathematical operations that
generate an alternate form of that data; the
sequence of these operations is called an
algorithm.

324
• To help distinguish between the two forms of
data, the unencrypted data is referred to as the
plaintext and the encrypted data as ciphertext.
• The security of encryption lies in the ability of an
algorithm to generate ciphertext that is not
easily reverted to the original plaintext.
• Two fundamental approaches are in use:
Conventional encryption, also known as symmetric
encryption, and
 Public-key encryption, also known as asymmetric
encryption.
325
• When using symmetric algorithms, both parties share
the same key for encryption and decryption.
• To provide privacy, this key needs to be kept secret.
• Once somebody else gets to know the key, it is not
safe any more.
• Symmetric algorithms have the advantage of not
consuming too much computing power.
• A few well-known examples are: DES(Data Encryption
Standard), Triple-DES (3DES).
Asymmetric algorithms use pairs of keys.
• One is used for encryption and the other one for
decryption. 326
• The decryption key is typically kept secretly,
therefore called ``private key'' or ``secret key'',
while the encryption key is spread to all who
might want to send encrypted messages,
therefore called ``public key''.
• Everybody having the public key is able to send
encrypted messages to the owner of the secret
key.

327
• The secret key can't be reconstructed from the
public key.
• Asymmetric algorithms seem to be ideally suited
for real-world use:
– As the secret key does not have to be shared, the risk
of getting known is much smaller.
• Every user only needs to keep one secret key in
secrecy and a collection of public keys that only
need to be protected against being changed.

328
• With symmetric keys, every pair of users would need to have
an own shared secret key.
• Well-known asymmetric algorithms are RSA, named for its
inventors (Rivest, Shamir, and Adleman) DSA (Digital
Signature Algorithm).
• However, asymmetric algorithms are much slower than
symmetric ones.
• Therefore, in many applications, a combination of both is
being used.
• The asymmetric keys are used for authentication, and after
this has been successfully done, one or more symmetric keys
are generated and exchanged using the asymmetric
encryption.
• This way the advantages of both algorithms can be used. 329
• The following are common Uses of Encryption.
Authentication
• Authentication is the process of logging in, signing on
or otherwise presenting information or oneself in a
manner that proves his or her identity.
• The most common example of authentication is the
use of a username and password to gain access to a
system, network or web site.
• The username and password combination is often
referred to as a person’s credentials and it is
frequently sent over networks.
• Encryption is used to protect these credentials. 330
 Validation
• Validation describes the ability to provide
assurance that a sender’s identity is true and that a
message, document or file has not been modified.
• Encryption can be used to provide validation by
making a digital fingerprint of the information
contained within a message.
• A digital fingerprint is a code that uniquely
identifies a file or a message by reflecting the
content of the file with tremendous specificity.
331
 Data Protection
• Probably the most widely used application of
encryption is in the area of data protection.
• Encryption of files protects the data that is
written to the hard disk on the computer.
• This information protection is vital in the event of
theft of the computer itself or if an attacker
successfully breaks into the system.
• However, file encryption becomes more difficult
to use and manage if the office has multiple
employees. 332
• Because each employee needs the encryption key,
protection of the key becomes a more difficult task.
• The more people who have access to encryption
keys, the less effective the encryption becomes.
• The risk of loss, theft or compromise of information
rises as the number of users increases.
• Files that have been encrypted are also vulnerable
to employees who leave the organization or who are
disgruntled and may want to cause the organization
harm.

333
 Firewall
• A firewall is a network component that provides
a security barrier between networks or network
segments.
• Firewalls are generally set up to protect a
particular network or network component from
attack, or unauthorized penetration, by outside
invaders.
• However, a firewall also may be set up to
protect vital corporate or institutional data or
resources from internal attacks or incompetence.
334
• Firewalls are not gateways, but they do often
work in association with gateways.
• One reason for this is that both firewalls and
gateways tend to sit between networks.
• The gateway’s job is to translate packets as they
move between different network environments;
the firewall’s job is to filter them.
• In some cases, however, the gateway and
firewall functions will be provided by the same
network components.
335
• This can happen, for example, if a network is
communicating with an alien (outsider) network,
so that the communication requires a gateway.
• In such a case, however, the filtering and
gateway (i.e., translating) elements will still be
distinct and will communicate with each other
through an internal filter.

336
• Three broad categories of firewall are
distinguished, although a particular firewall
installation may include more than one of these.
Packet-filtering : Such low-level filters pass or
drop packets based on their source or
destination addresses or ports.
• This level of filtering is already provided by
routers.
• Such a firewall is easy and inexpensive to set up,
but its capabilities are quite limited.
337
• A packet filtering firewall can fail if its table of
valid and invalid addresses is incorrect.
• Such a firewall is also susceptible to address-
spoofing (making a filter believe that a packet is
coming from a different address).
Application-filtering: These higher level filter
screen traffic involving specific applications or
services (for example, ftp or e-mail).
• The advantage of such a filter is that it allows for
more sophisticated valuation and authentication
measures. 338
• A major disadvantage of a filter operating at
the application level is that such programs can
be very complex and have many possible
action sequences.
• The large number of possibilities— for
example, an application calling another
application—makes it very difficult to build in
safeguards against every possible attack.

339
• Circuit-level: Such a filter looks not only at source
and destination addresses but also at the circuits
(temporary paths) that have been established for
a connection.
• Such circuits are established—for example, when
using TCP (transport control protocol) — during
an initial handshaking session.
• Such a filter can detect address-spoofing, for
example, because such a misleading packet would
have no way of getting the circuit information that
is set up during the handshaking. 340
• While very effective for certain protocols, circuit filters
are of limited use with connectionless protocols (such
as UDP), which may send packets over various paths.
• Like all security measures, firewalls can be useful, but
they are not foolproof.
• They have the advantage of concentrating security
measures and issues, making it easier to set up and
maintain them.
• Of course, such centralization also provides an Achilles
heel— that is, a point of vulnerability.
• If an intruder can get around (or, more often, under) the
firewall, then an attack is possible.
341
• A firewall’s effectiveness depends on all traffic going
through the firewall.
• This is not a sufficient condition for security, however.
• In tunneling, one packet is encapsulated inside
another.
• With this strategy, a packet from an untrusted
machine or user could be placed into a packet from a
trusted machine, and the latter packet could then be
sent through a firewall.
• Unless the firewall actually takes each packet apart
and examines its contents, there is no guaranteed
effective protection against tunneling.
342
 Backups (Redundancy)
• Just about everyone who has used a computer
system has experienced losing important data
in some kind of accident.
• There are many reasons why data get lost: it
might be due to carelessness or natural disaster.
• The purpose of a backup is to make a copy of
data, which is unlikely to be lost or destroyed by
the same act as the original.

343
• The key principle of backups is redundancy.
Redundancy means making multiple copies of
data, so that we always have something to fall
back on.
• We can have backups of data, but we can also
have backup of services, in case we lose an
important piece of hardware.
• Redundancy is like an insurance policy.
• Clearly, making backups of every file is a time-
consuming process, and it requires a lot of
storage. 344
• There are two kinds of backup
• Full dump: copies every file on a source
medium to a backup medium.
• Incremental or differential dump: copies files
according to the level of the dump.
• A level 0 dump copies everything.
• A level 1 dump copies everything, which has
changed since the last level 0 dump.
• A level 2 dump copies everything which has
changed since the last level 1 dump or level 0
dump and so on. 345
 Virtual Private Network (VPN)
• A virtual private network (VPN) is a technology
that is gaining popularity among large
organizations that use the global Internet for both
intra- and inter-organization communication, but
require privacy in their intra-organization
communication.
• VPN is a network that is private but virtual. It is
private because it guarantees privacy inside the
organization.
• It is virtual because it does not use real private
WANs; the network is physically public but virtually
private. 346
• Figure 7.1 shows the idea of a virtual private
network.
• Routers R1 and R2 use VPN technology to
guarantee privacy for the organization.
• VPN technology uses the ESP (Encapsulating
Security Protocol) of IPSec in the tunnel
mode.
• A private datagram, including the header, is
encapsulated in an ESP packet.

347
• The router at the border of the sending site uses
its own IP address and the address of the router at
the destination site in the new datagram.
• The public network (Internet) is responsible for
carrying the packet from R1 to R2.
• Outsiders cannot decipher the contents of the
packet or the source and destination addresses.
• Deciphering takes place at R2 which finds the
destination address of the packet and delivers it.

348
• Figure 7.1 Virtual private networks

349
 TRANSPORT-LAYER SECURITY
• Two protocols are dominant today for
providing security at the transport layer: the
Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) protocol and the
Transport Layer Security (TLS) protocol.
• Figure 7.2 shows the position of SSL and TLS in
the Internet model.
• Some of the goals of these protocols are to
provide server and client authentication, data
confidentiality, and data integrity.

350
• Application-layer client/server programs, such as HTTP
that use the services of TCP can encapsulate their data
in SSL packets (HTTPS).

Figure 7.2 Location of SSL and TLS in the Internet model

351