Chapter 14
Sound
Producing a Sound Wave
Sound waves are longitudinal waves
traveling through a medium
A tuning fork can be used as an
example of producing a sound wave
Using a Tuning Fork to
Produce a Sound Wave
A tuning fork will produce a
pure musical note
As the tines vibrate, they
disturb the air near them
As the tine swings to the
right, it forces the air
molecules near it closer
together
This produces a high density
area in the air
This is an area of compression
Using a Tuning Fork, cont.
As the tine moves
toward the left, the
air molecules to the
right of the tine
spread out
This produces an area
of low density
This area is called a
rarefaction
Using a Tuning Fork, final
As the tuning fork continues to vibrate, a succession of
compressions and rarefactions spread out from the fork
A sinusoidal curve can be used to represent the
longitudinal wave
Crests correspond to compressions and troughs to rarefactions
Categories of Sound
Waves
Audible waves
Lay within the normal range of hearing of
the human ear
Normally between 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz
Infrasonic waves
Frequencies are below the audible range
Earthquakes are an example
Ultrasonic waves
Frequencies are above the audible range
Dog whistles are an example
Speed of Sound in a Liquid
In a liquid, the speed depends on the
liquid’s compressibility and inertia
B is the Bulk Modulus of the liquid
is the density of the liquid
Compares with the equation for a
transverse wave on a string
Speed of Sound in a Solid
Rod
The speed depends on the rod’s
compressibility and inertial properties
Y
v=
ρ
Y is the Young’s Modulus of the material
is the density of the material
Speed of Sound, General
elastic property
v=
inertial property
The speed of sound is higher in solids
than in gases
The molecules in a solid interact more
strongly
The speed is slower in liquids than in
solids
Liquids are more compressible
Speed of Sound in Air
331 m/s is the speed of sound at
0° C
T is the absolute temperature
Intensity of Sound Waves
The average intensity of a wave is the
rate at which the energy flows through
a unit area, A, oriented perpendicular to
the direction of travel of the wave
The rate of energy transfer is the power
Units are W/m2
Various Intensities of
Sound
Threshold of hearing
Faintest sound most humans can hear
About 1 x 10-12 W/m2
Threshold of pain
Loudest sound most humans can tolerate
About 1 W/m2
The ear is a very sensitive detector of
sound waves
It can detect pressure fluctuations as small
as about 3 parts in 1010
Intensity Level of Sound
Waves
The sensation of loudness is
logarithmic in the human hear
is the intensity level or the
decibel level of the sound
Io is the threshold of hearing
Various Intensity Levels
Threshold of hearing is 0 dB
Threshold of pain is 120 dB
Jet airplanes are about 150 dB
Table 14.2 lists intensity levels of
various sounds
Multiplying a given intensity by 10
adds 10 dB to the intensity level
Spherical Waves
A spherical wave
propagates radially
outward from the
oscillating sphere
The energy
propagates equally
in all directions
The intensity is
Intensity of a Point Source
Since the intensity varies as 1/r2, this is
an inverse square relationship
The average power is the same through
any spherical surface centered on the
source
To compare intensities at two locations,
the inverse square relationship can be
used
Representations of Waves
Wave fronts are the
concentric arcs
The distance between
successive wave fronts
is the wavelength
Rays are the radial
lines pointing out from
the source and
perpendicular to the
wave fronts
Plane Wave
Far away from the
source, the wave
fronts are nearly
parallel planes
The rays are nearly
parallel lines
A small segment of
the wave front is
approximately a
plane wave
Doppler Effect
A Doppler effect is experienced
whenever there is relative motion
between a source of waves and an
observer.
When the source and the observer are
moving toward each other, the observer
hears a higher frequency
When the source and the observer are
moving away from each other, the observer
hears a lower frequency
Doppler Effect, cont.
Although the Doppler Effect is
commonly experienced with sound
waves, it is a phenomena common
to all waves
Assumptions:
The air is stationary
All speed measurements are made
relative to the stationary medium
Doppler Effect, Case 1
(Observer Toward Source)
An observer is
moving toward a
stationary source
Due to his
movement, the
observer detects an
additional number
of wave fronts
The frequency
heard is increased
Doppler Effect, Case 1
(Observer Away from Source)
An observer is
moving away
from a stationary
source
The observer
detects fewer
wave fronts per
second
The frequency
appears lower
Doppler Effect, Case 1 –
Equation
When moving toward the stationary
source, the observed frequency is
When moving away from the stationary
source, substitute –vo for vo in the above
equation
Doppler Effect, Case 2
(Source in Motion)
As the source moves
toward the observer
(A), the wavelength
appears shorter and
the frequency
increases
As the source moves
away from the
observer (B), the
wavelength appears
longer and the
frequency appears to
be lower
Doppler Effect, Source
Moving – Equation
Use the –vs when the source is
moving toward the observer and
+vs when the source is moving
away from the observer
Doppler Effect, General
Case
Both the source and the observer could
be moving
Use positive values of vo and vs if the
motion is toward
Frequency appears higher
Use negative values of vo and vs if the
motion is away
Frequency appears lower
Interference of Sound
Waves
Sound waves interfere
Constructive interference occurs when the
path difference between two waves’ motion
is zero or some integer multiple of
wavelengths
path difference = n
Destructive interference occurs when the
path difference between two waves’ motion
is an odd half wavelength
path difference = (n + 1/2)
Standing Waves
When a traveling wave reflects back on
itself, it creates traveling waves in both
directions
The wave and its reflection interfere
according to the superposition principle
With exactly the right frequency, the
wave will appear to stand still
This is called a standing wave
Standing Waves, cont
A node occurs where the two traveling
waves have the same magnitude of
displacement, but the displacements
are in opposite directions
Net displacement is zero at that point
The distance between two nodes is 1/2
An antinode occurs where the standing
wave vibrates at maximum amplitude
Standing Waves on a
String
Nodes must occur at the ends of the
string because these points are fixed
Standing Waves, cont.
The pink arrows
indicate the direction
of motion of the
parts of the string
All points on the
string oscillate
together vertically
with the same
frequency, but
different points have
different amplitudes
of motion
Standing Waves on a
String, final
The lowest
frequency of
vibration (b) is
called the
fundamental
frequency
Standing Waves on a
String – Frequencies
ƒ1, ƒ2, ƒ3 form a harmonic series
ƒ1 is the fundamental and also the first
harmonic
ƒ2 is the second harmonic
Waves in the string that are not in the
harmonic series are quickly damped out
In effect, when the string is disturbed, it
“selects” the standing wave frequencies
Standing Waves in Air
Columns
If one end of the air column is
closed, a node must exist at this
end since the movement of the air
is restricted
If the end is open, the elements of
the air have complete freedom of
movement and an antinode exists
Tube Open at Both Ends
Resonance in Air Column
Open at Both Ends
In a pipe open at both ends, the
natural frequency of vibration
forms a series whose harmonics
are equal to integral multiples of
the fundamental frequency
Tube Closed at One End
Resonance in an Air
Column Closed at One End
The closed end must be a node
The open end is an antinode
There are no even multiples of the
fundamental harmonic
Beats
Beats are alternations in loudness, due to interference
Waves have slightly different frequencies and the time
between constructive and destructive interference
alternates
The beat frequency equals the difference in
frequency between the two sources: