Introduction To Engineering Materials
An element is a pure substance that cannot be broken down by chemical means to a simpler substance
Elements can be classified into two major groups, namely metals and non metals
In chemistry, a metal is that element which readily gives its valency electrons when it combines with another element.
For a physicist metal is an element which possesses good thermal and electrical conductivity.
A technician differentiates between metals and non metals on the basis of characteristic luster possessed by the metal
A mechanical engineer. Metals are those elements which can be drawn into wires and formed into sheets.
Thermodynamic consideration, street metals as homogeneous chemical phase aside with certain thermodynamic
parameters. Controlling its characteristics
In metallurgy, a metal is defined as an element having free electrons. These electrons are able to move freely
throughout the lattice, and hence the name free electrons is given to such electrons Consequently, non metals are those
elements which do not pass free electrons
Every material made up of one or more than 1 element is used directly or indirectly by mankind for one or another
purposes
For the sake of convenience. Solid materials useful to human beings are referred as engineering materials
Engineering materials helps in restricting the field of study of materials in major fraction of engineering materials.
Utilize the elements in combined form as alloys, compounds are mixtures
A material is essentially any substance or mixture of substances that constitutes an object. Materials can be
classified based on their physical and chemical properties, geological origin, or biological function1. Here are a few
key points about materials:
Types of Materials: Materials can be pure (like gold) or impure (like alloys), living (like wood) or non-living (like
plastic).
Uses: They are used in various applications, from construction (concrete, steel) to everyday items (fabric, plastic).
Properties: Materials are often chosen based on properties like strength, flexibility, conductivity, and durability.
In the context of materials science, understanding these properties helps in developing new materials and improving
existing ones for various applications.
Materials Science is a versatile and impactful field with numerous applications across various industries. Here are
some key uses and applications:
Energy: Development of materials for solar cells, batteries, and fuel cells to improve energy efficiency and storage1.
Transportation: Creation of lightweight and strong materials for automotive and aerospace industries to enhance fuel
efficiency and safety1.
Aerospace: Design of heat-resistant and durable materials for spacecraft and aircraft components1.
Electronics: Innovation in semiconductors and conductive materials for faster and more efficient electronic devices1.
Medicine: Development of biocompatible materials for implants, prosthetics, and medical devices1.
Construction: Improvement of building materials like concrete, steel, and composites for stronger and more
sustainable infrastructure1.
Materials scientists use various techniques, such as differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), to analyze and enhance
the properties of materials for these applications. This interdisciplinary approach helps in solving complex problems
and advancing technology in multiple fields.
Classification of Engineering Materials
Fundamentals of Crystallography
And
Crystal Structures
Crystal:
A form of matter wherein its molecules are regularly
aggregated in a definite internal crystal structure,
with the external form of a solid of symmetrically
arranged plane faces
Quartz crystal Gallium single crystal
Outline:
Crystal structure:
A crystal structure is composed of a unit cell, a set of atoms
arranged in a particular way; which is periodically repeated
in three dimensions on a lattice.
There are seven crystal systems:
Triclinic Monoclinic Orthorhombic Tetragonal Rhombohedral
Hexagonal
cubic
Crystal structure:
A crystal structure is composed of a unit cell, a set of atoms
arranged in a particular way; which is periodically repeated
in three dimensions on a lattice.
There are seven crystal systems:
Triclinic Monoclinic Orthorhombic Tetragonal Rhombohedral
Hexagonal
cubic
Unit Cells of the Bravais Lattices:
Unit cell
Unit Cells of the Bravais Lattices:
There are two types of unit cells:
o Conventional
o Primitive
Unit Cells are an array of lattice points in a specific Bravais
lattice that, when periodically repeated, forms the entire lattice.
This is defined by, the translation vector:
r = ua + vb + wc
The unit cell geometry is completely defined in terms of the
3 edge lengths a, b and c and the angles between them α,β,γ.
a, b and c = lattice parameters/constants
A conventional unit cell is one that is convenient to define.
The smallest unit cell described by r is called a primitive unit
cell.
It is defined as a unit cell that contains only one lattice point.
o i.e., lattice points only at the corners.
o Primitive unit cells often exhibit less symmetry than
the lattices they represent, thus sometimes can cause confusion.
Simple Cubic (SC):
There is one host atom ("lattice point") at each corner of a cubic unit c
The unit cell is described by three edge lengths a = b = c = 2r (r is the
host atom radius), and the angles between the edges,
alpha = beta = gamma = 90 degrees. There is one atom wholly inside
the cube (Z = 1). Unit cells in which there are host atoms (or lattice
points) only at the eight corners are called primitive.
Body Centered Cubic (BCC):
There is one host atom at each corner of the cubic unit cell and
one atom in the cell center. Each atom touches eight other host
atoms along the body diagonal of the cube (a = 2.3094r, Z = 2).
Face Centered Cubic (FCC):
There is one host atom at each corner, one host atom in each face, an
the host atoms touch along the face diagonal (a = 2.8284r, Z = 4).
This lattice is "closest packed", because spheres of equal size occupy
the maximum amount of space in this arrangement (74.05%);
since this closest packing is based on a cubic array, it is called
"cubic closest packing": CCP = FCC.
Hexagonal Closest Packing (HCP):
To form a three-dimensional closest packed structure, the hexagonal
closest packed planes must be stacked such that atoms in successive
planes nestle (Move or arrange oneself in a comfortable and cozy position) in the triangular
"grooves" of the preceding plane.
Note that there are six of these "grooves" surrounding each atom in
the hexagonal plane, but only three of them can be covered by atoms
in the adjacent plane. The first plane is labeled "A" and the second plane
is labeled "B", and the perpendicular interplanar spacing between plane
A and plane B is 1.633r.
Examples of Primitive Unit Cells:
FCC & BCC
The hcp and fcc structures:
The hcp and fcc structures are closely related : they are both based
upon stacking layers of atoms, where the atoms are arranged in a
close-packed hexagonal manner within the individual layer.
The atoms of the next layer of the structure will preferentially sit in
some of the hollows in the first layer - this gives the closest approach
of atoms in the two layers and thereby maximizes the cohesive interac
In the structure on the right the atoms of the 3rd layer are laterally offs
from those in both the 1st and 2nd
layers, and it is not until the 4th
layer that the sequence begins to
repeat. This is the ..ABCABC..
packing sequence of the fcc structure.
In the structure on the left the atoms
of the 3rd layer sit directly above
those in the 1st layer - this gives rise ABC AB
to the characteristic ..ABABA..
packing sequence of the hcp structure
PURE METALS
NON METALS
OCTAHEDRA
Co-ordination number
The co-ordination number is defined as the number of nearest neighboring atoms to a
given atom.
The higher the co-ordination number in unit cell the more is closely packed.
[Link] have co-ordination number of atoms =8
[Link] have co-ordination number of atoms =12
[Link] have co-ordination number of atoms =12
Co-ordination number of BCC Unit cell
Effective No. of atoms in B.C.C.
One atom at each corner of unit cell.
Total corner atoms in unit cell is 8.
Each corner atom is shared by 8 unit cells.
The share of each unit cell is 8x1/8=1.
The center atom belongs to one unit cell only.
Total effective number of atoms in B.C.C. is 1+1=2.
Co-ordination number of FCC unit cell
Effective No. of atoms in F.C.C.
One atom at each corner of unit cell.
Total corner atoms in unit cell is 8.
Share of each unit cell is 8x1/8=1 .
One face centered atom on six faces of unit cell.
Each face centered atom shared by two unit cells.
Share of each unit cell of face centered atom is 6x1/2=3.
Total effective no. atoms in f.c.c is 1+3=4.
Co-ordination number of HCP unit cell
Effective No. of atoms in H.C.P.
There are 12 corner atoms in hexagon
Each corner atom is shared by 6 unit cells.
Total no. of corner atoms are 12x1/6=2.
There are 2 face centered atoms ,each face centered atom sh
ared by 2 unit cells.
Total [Link] face centered atoms are 2x1/2=1.
Middle atoms in hexagonal planes is 3.
Total effective no. of atoms in H.C.P are 2+1+3=6
HCP Unit cell
Effective No. of atoms in F.C.C.
Effective No. of atoms in H.C.P.
Crystal density
The density of crystal is defined as the ratio of mass of the e
ffective number atoms in unit cell to volume of unit cell.
Density =Mass of effective no. atoms in u
nit cell / vol. of unit cell
Density of BCC unit cell =Mass of two atoms / Vol.
of BCC unit cell
Density of FCC unit cell =Mass of 4 atoms / Vol.
of FCC unit cell
Density of HCP unit cell = Mass of 6 atoms / Vol.
of unit cell.