Tablets
Content of Tablets
• Definition
• Advantages and disadvantages
• Types of tablets
• Preparation of granules for compression
• Compression of granules into tablets
• Coating of tablets
• Quality control of tablets
2
Definition
• Tablets the solid dosage containing
medicament
are form or circular
shape and maymedicaments, usually
be flat or biconvex. in
• Tablets are prepared by the compression method and
are hence called the “Compressed Tablets”.
3
Advantages of Tablets
1. The tablets are easy to be administered
2. They are easy to be dispensed
3. These are more stable dosage form
4. They maintain the accuracy of dosage
5. Bitter and nauseous substances can be given easily in
tablet form after giving a suitable coating to the tablets
6. They are the lightest and the most compact of all
dosage forms
7. These are an economical dosage form
4
Disadvantages of Tablets
1. Some drugs resist compression into tablet form due
to their amorphous nature or low density character.
2. Bitter tasting drugs, drugs with objectionable odour
or drugs that the sensitive to oxygen or atmospheric
moisture may require encapsulation or a special type
of coating which may increase the cost of the
finished tablets.
3. Drugs with poor wetting and slow dissolution
properties are difficult to convert into tablets which
provide full drug bioavailability
5
Types of
• Tablets
tablets
are classified according to their route of
administration or function. The following are the four
main classification groups:-
A. Tablets ingested orally
B. Tablets used in the oral cavity
C. Tablets administered by other routes
D. Tablets used to prepare solutions
6
A. Tablets ingested orally
1. Compressed tablets
2. Multiple compressed tablets or press coated tablets
3. Multilayered tablets
4. Sustained action tablets
5. Enteric coated tablets
6. Sugar coated tablets
7. Film coated tablets
8. Chewable tablets
7
B. Tablets used in the oral
cavity
1. Buccal tablets
2. Sublingual tablets
3. Lozenge tablets and traches
4. Dental cones
8
C. Tablets administered by
other routes
1. Implantation tablets
2. Vaginal tablets
9
D. Tablets used to prepare
solutions
1. Effervescent tablets
2. Dispensing tablets
3. Hypodermic tablets
4. Tablet triturates
10
Compressed tablets
• These tablets are uncoated and made by compression
of granules.
• These tablets are usually intended to provide rapid
disintegration and drug release.
• These tablets contain water soluble drugs which after
swallowing get disintegrated in the stomach and its
drug contents are absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract
and distribute in the whole body.
11
Multi compressed tablets
(M.C.T.)
• These tablets are prepared to separate physically or
chemically incompatible ingredients or to produce
repeat-action or prolonged-action products.
• To avoid incompatibility, the of the
formulation except the incompatible
ingredients
compressed into a core tablet and then incompatible
material are
substance along with necessary excipients are
compressed over the previously compressed core tablet.
• A special type of tablet making machine is used which
provides two compressions.
12
Multilayered tablets
• These tablets consist of two or more layers of
materials compressed successively in the same
tablets.
• The colour of each layer may be the same or
different.
• The tablets having layers of different colours are
known as “multicoloured tablets”.
• These tablets are prepared to separate incompatible
ingredients physically.
13
Sustained action tablets
• These tablets are used to get a sustained action of
medicament.
• These tablets when taken orally release the
medicament in a sufficient quantity as and when
required to maintain the maximum effective
concentration of the drug in the blood throughout the
period of treatment.
• Controlled release of drug helps in getting the desired
degree of action.
• These tablets are gaining popularity these days.
14
Enteric coated tablets
• These are compressed tablets meant for
administration by swallowing and are designed to
bypass the stomach and get disintegrated in the
intestines only.
• These tablets are made to release the drug undiluted
and in the highest concentration possible within the
intestine. e.g. tablets containing anthelmentics and
amoebicides.
15
Sugar coated tablets
• The compressed tablets having a sugar coating
are called “sugar coated tablets”.
• Sugar coating is done to mask the bitter
and unpleasant odour and the taste of the
medicament.
• The sugar coating makes the tablet elegant and it also
safe guards the drug from atmospheric effects.
16
Film coated tablets
• The compressed tablets having a film coating of some
polymer substance, such as hydroxypropyl cellulose,
hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose and ethyl cellulose.
• The film coating protects the medicament from
atmospheric effects.
• Film coated tablets are generally tasteless, having
little increase in the tablet weight and have less
elegance than that of sugar coated tablets.
17
Chewable tablets
• These tablets are chewed in the mouth and broken
into smaller pieces.
• In this way, the disintegration time is reduced and the
rate of absorption of the medicament is increased e.g.
aluminium hydroxide tablets and phenolphthalein
tablets.
18
Buccal tablets
• These tablets are to be placed in the buccal pouch or
between the gums and lips or cheek where they
dissolve or disintegrate slowly and are absorbed
directly without passing into the alimentary canal.
e.g. tablets of ethisterone.
19
Sublingual tablets
• These tablets are to be placed under the tongue where
they dissolve or disintegrate quickly and are absorbed
directly without passing into GIT (gastro intestinal
tract). e.g. tablets of glyceryl trinitrite.
20
Lozenge tablets and troches
• These tablets are designed to exert a local effect in
the mouth or throat.
• These tablets are commonly used to treat sore throat or to
control coughing in common cold.
• They may contain local anaesthetics, antiseptic,
antibacterial agents, astringents and antitussives.
• These are prepared by compression at a high pressure or
by the moulding process and generally contain a
sweetening agent, a flavouring agent and a substance
which produces a cooling effect along with medicaments.
21
Dental cones
• These are relatively minor compressed tablets meant
for placing them in the empty sockets after tooth
extraction.
• They prevent the multiplication of bacteria in the
socket following such extraction by using
releasing antibacterial to orreduce
slow-
compounds
bleeding by containing the astringent.
• These tablets contain an excipient like
lactose, sodium bicarbonate and sodium chloride etc.
• These cones generally get dissolved in 20 to
40 minutes time.
22
Implantation tablets
• These tablets are placed under the skin or inserted
subcutaneously by means of minor surgical operation
and are slowly absorbed.
• These may be made by heavy compression but are
normally made by fusion.
• The implants must be sterile and should be packed
individually in sterile condition.
• Implants mainly used administration of
are for such testosterone and
deoxycorticosterone
hormones etc. as
23
Vaginal tablets
• These tablets are meant to dissolve slowly in the
vaginal cavity.
• The tablets are typically ovoid or pear shaped to
facilitate retention in the vagina.
• This tablet form is used to release steroids,
antibacterial agents, antiseptics or astringents to treat
vaginal infections.
• The tablets are often buffered to promote a pH
favourable to the action of a specified antiseptic
agent.
24
Effervescent tablets
• These tablets when added in water produce
effervescence.
• So they dissolved rapidly in water due to the
chemical reaction which takes place between alkali
bicarbonate and citric acid or tartaric acid or
combination of both.
• These tablets are to be protected from atmospheric
moisture during storage.
• So, these tablets should be stored in well-closed air
tight containers.
25
Dispensing tablets
• The medicaments commonly incorporated in
dispensing these tablets include mild silver
proteinate, bichloride of mercury merbromin and
quarternary ammonium compounds.
• These tablets contain excipient which gets dissolved
quickly to form a clear solution.
• These tablets are highly toxic if taken orally by
mistake.
• So, great care must be taken in the packaging and
labelling of such tablets in order to prevent their
misuse.
26
Hypodermic tablets
• These are compressed tablets which are composed of
one or more drugs with readily water soluble
ingredients.
• These tablets are dissolved in sterile water or water
for injection and administered by parenteral route.
• So, special percautions are needed to be taken during
their preparations.
• These tablets however are not preferred nowadays as
there are chances that the solution prepared from
hypodermic tablets may be a non-sterile.
27
Tablet triturates
• These are small tablets usually cylindrical, moulded
or compressed, and contain a potent medicament with
a diluent.
• On a small scale, tablet triturates are prepared by
using hand-operated tablet triturates moulds but for
bulk production, automatic tablet triturate machines
are used.
28
Commonly used Excipients in Tablets
• In addition to active ingredients tablet contains a number of inert
materials
• Classified -Part they play in finished products
I. Affect compression character: Diluents, binders, glidants and
lubrication
II. Affect Biopharmaceutics Chemical and Physical stabilitly and
marketing consideration of the tablets- disintergrating agents
colour, flavours and sweetener etc
Tablets= Drug+ Excipients
1. Diluents
2. Binders, compression aids, granulating agents
3. Disintegrants
4. Superdistegrant
5. Glidants
6. Lubricants
7. Antiadherent
8. Colouring agents
9. Sweeting agent
Diluents
• Fillers used to make required bulk
• To provide better tablet properties (ie) improve cohesive ,flow
properties
PROPERTIES OF DILUENTS
1. Non toxic
2. Commercially available in acceptable grade.
3. Low cost
4. Physiologically inert
5. Physically & chemically stable by themselves & incombination with
the drugs.
6. Free from any unacceptable microbial contamination.
7. Color compatible.
8. No deleterious effect on the bioavailability of drugs.
COMMONLY USED DILUENTS
i. Lactose-anhydrous and spray dried lactose
ii. Directly compressed starch
iii. Hydrolyzed starch
iv. Microcrystalline cellulose-Avicel (2 grades: pH 101 and pH 102)
v. Dibasic calcium phosphate dehydrate
vi. Calcium sulphate dihydrate
vii. Mannitol
viii. Sorbitol
ix. Sucrose
x. Dextrose
Binders and Adhesives
These materials are added either dry or in liquid form to form
granules or to promote cohesive compacts for directly compressed
tablet.
EXAMPLES:
Natural gums: Acacia, tragacanth - 10-25% Conc solution
Disadvantages:
a. Variable in composition and performance, based on their natural
origin
b. Heavily contaminated with bacteria
Solution: When these materials are used, wet granulation masses
should be quickly died at 37C to reduce microbial proliferation
• Cellulose derivatives: Methylcellulose, Hydroxy propyl methyl
cellulose, Hydroxy propyl cellulose
• Natural protein:
Gelatin- 10-20% solution
Advantage: more consistent material & easier to prepare in solution
form.
•
Glucose: 50% soln in water
Advantage: low cost
Disadvantage: bacterial proliferation
Synthetic polymer: Polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP)- 2% conc.
• Starch paste: 10-20% soln
• Sodium alginate
Disintegrants
i. Facilitate the breaking or disintegration of tablet when it
contacts water in the GIT.
ii. Draw water into the tablet resulting in swelling and cause
the tablet to burst apart.
iii. Help in dissolution of the drug and attainment of high
drug bioavailability.
iv. They can increase in volume in the presence of water by
200 to 500%.
Examples:
i. Starch- 5-20% of tablet weight.
ii. Pre-gelatinized starches (5%)
iii. Clays- Veegum HV and bentonite (10%)
iv. Microcrystalline cellulose
v. Cellulose derivatives- Ac- Di-Sol (internally cross linked
sodium carboxymethylcellulose)
vi. PVP (cross-linked polyvinylpyrrolidone
Superdisintegrants
• Swells up to ten folds within 30 seconds when contact water
• Examples:
Crosscarmellose- cross-linked cellulose
Crosspovidone- cross-linked povidone (polymer)
Sodium starch glycolate- cross-linked starch
Lubricants
Lubricants are intended to reduce the friction during tablet ejection
between the walls of the tablet and the walls of the die cavity in
which the tablet was formed
• Stearic acid salts – Calcium and Magnesium stearate
• Stearic acid – it is less effective lubricant than stearic acid salts
and also has a lower melting point.
• Talc – it contains trace quantities of iron, therefore it should be
considered carefully.
• PEG-- The finer the particle size of the lubricant, the more
effective the lubricant action
Antiadherents
Antiadherents are intended to reduce sticking or adhersion of tablet
granulation or powder to the faces of the punches or to the die walls.
Examples:
Starch, talc , magnesium stearate
Glidants
Glidants are intended to promote flow of granules or powder
material by reducing the friction between the particles.
Examples:
Corn Starch – 5-10% conc.
Talc- 5% conc
Silica derivatives - Colloidal silicas such as Cab-O- Sil in 0.25-3%
conc
Coloring agents
PURPOSE:
i. Masking of color drugs
ii. Product Identification
iii. Production of more elegant product
iv. All coloring agents must be approved and certified by
FDA.
v. Two types
a. Dyes: Applied as solution in the granulating agent
b. Lakes: Applied as dry powder
Example:
FD & C blue 2 - Indigo carmine
In any colored tablet, the formulation should be checked for
resistance to color changes on exposure to light
Flavoring agents
• Used in chewable tablets or tablets intended to dissolve in mouth.
• Flavor oils are used and are added to tablet granulations in solvents,
are dispersed on clays and other absorbents or emulsified in
aqueous granulating agent.
• The maximum amount of oil that can be added is 0.5 -0.75%.
Sweetening agents
• Used only in chewable tablets to exclude or limit the use of
sugar in the tablets.
• Examples:
[Link] (artificial): 500 times sweeter than sucrose
Disadvantage: Bitter after taste and carcinogenic
[Link] (artificial)
Disadvantage: Lack of stability in presence of moisture.
[Link]
GRANULATION PROCESS
Granulation process may be defined as a process wherein small
particles adhere together by forming bonds between them ,
resulting in the formation of large aggregates called granules.
Importance of Granulation
a) To avoid powder segregation
b) To enhance the flow of powder
c) Granules have higher porosity than powders,
d) To improve the compressibility of powders.
e) The granulation of toxic materials will reduce the hazard of
generation of toxic dust, which may arise during the handling of
the powders.
f) Materials, which are slightly hygroscope, may adhere & form a
cake if stored as a powder.
Methods of Granulation
1. Direct compression.
2. Dry granulation methods.
3. Wet Granulation.
4. Granulation by Crystallization
Direct compression
Direct compression is a dry process where in the powdered material
(tablet formulation) is compressed directly into the tablets without
the physical nature of the former being modified.
Example:
Formulation of Ascorbic Acid Tablets.
Formulation of Chewable Antacid Tablets
Step -1 Grinding
Drug is added to the granulator and grinded.
Step -2 Blending or Mixing
The suitable adjuvants (Ex. Directly compressible vehicles and other
excipients) are added in a blender and mix thoroughly.
Step -3 Tablet press
The blended powdered material is compressed by machine tooling ( Dies
and punches) of a tablet press
Dry Granulation
• The process of dry granulation is also called Double Compression or
• Granulation or Pre-Compression Granulation.
• The process involves the formation of tablet by first converting the
tablet formulation into slugs or compact masses. These formed
masses are screened to form uniform sized fine granules. The
technique is suitable for those drugs which are moisture sensitive,
degrade at higher temperature and administered in higher doses.
• The technique of Dry granulation of powdered material can be
accomplished by two methods.
a) Slugging (slug formation).
b) Roller compaction method
Step -1 Grinding
Drug is added to the granulator and grinded.
Step -2 Blending or Mixing
The suitable adjuvants (Ex. Diluent and other excipients) are
added and mixed in a blender .
Step -3 Compaction
After mixing, the powder mixture is slugged or compressed
into large flat tablets or pellets about 1 inch diameter . On
large scale , Roller compactor is preferred.
Step -4 Crushing
These slugs are broken down by hand or by milling to form
granules
Step -5 Screening or Sifting
The granules undergo dry screening through a desired mesh for
sizing.
Step -6 Blending or Mixing
Finally, the lubricating agent is added and mixed thoroughly in a
blender.
Step -7 Tablet press
The resultant granules are compressed by machine tooling ( Dies
and punches) of a tablet press.
Example of Formulations Prepared by Dry Granulation Method:
Formulation of Acetyl Salicylic Acid tablets.
Formulation of Vitamin B Complex
Wet Granulation
• Wet granulation or Moist granulation is the most conventional ,
versatile and widely used techniques for the manufacture of
compressed tablets, as it imparts all the physical properties to
the granules.
• This technique differs from the other granulation methods as it
involves the usage of liquids to form compact masses.
Example of Formulations Prepared by Wet Granulation Method:
Formulation of Acetaminophen tablets.,
Formulation of Aluminium Hydroxide Chewable tablets.
Step -1 Grinding
Drug is added to the granulator and grinded
Step -2 Blending or Mixing
The suitable adjuvants (Ex. Diluent and other excipients) are added
and mixed in a blender .
Step -3 Shear Mixing
Granulating liquids (Ex. Alcohols ) are added to form a damp mass of
the powdered material which resembles agglomerates.
Step -4 Wet screening
The mass is screened to form pellets or granules
Step -5 Drying
The pellets or granules are dried to remove excess of the
liquid.
Step -6 Dry screening
Dry screening of granules results in size reduction.
Step -7 Blending
The lubricating agent is added and the mixture is mixed
thoroughly in a blender.
Step -8 Tablet press
The resultant granules are compressed by machine tooling of a
tablet press.
D. Granulation by Crystallization
This method exploits the presence of crystallization water in the
active material; this method is rarely used..
Tablet Punching Machine
The dried granules are compressed into tablets in a machine
known as tablet making machine.
• The various type of machines used for this purpose ,are:
1. Single punch tablet machine which may be hand operated or
electrically operated
[Link] tablet machine
3. Rotary tablet machine
4. Dry cota tablet machine
Single punch tablet machine
et presses:
a. single-punch presses
b. multi-station rotary presses
The basic mechanical process of tableting with single-
punch presses
a) filling material
b) scraping away the excessive granulation
c) forming a tablet by compression
d) pushing up the tablet to stage surface
e) shoving the tablet aside
A picture of multi-station rotary press
Rotary tablet machine
The core components and compression cycle of
rotary presses
Processing Defect during Punching of Tablets
Capping:
is the partial or complete separation of the top or bottom crowns
of a tablet from the main body of the tablet.
Lamination:
is separation of a tablet into two or more distinct layers. Both of
these problems usually result from air entrapment during
processing.
Picking:
is removal of a tablet’s surface material by a punch.
Sticking:
is adhesion of tablet material to a die wall. These two problems
result from excessive moisture or substances with low melting
temperatures in the formulation
Mottling:
is an unequal color distribution on a tablet, with light or dark
areas standing on otherwise uniform surface. This results
from use of a drug with a color different from that of the
tablet excipients or from a drug with colored degradation
products.
Weight variation:
granule size distribution, poorfiow, punch variation
Hardness variation:
Double impression:
monograms or engraving on punch
Tablet coating
The reasons for tablet coating
1. Protect the medicinal agent against destructive exposure to air
and/or humidity;
2. Mask the taste of the drug;
3. Provide special characteristics of drug release;
4. Provide aesthetics or distinction to the product;
5. Prevent inadvertent contact by nonpatients with the drug
substance
Methods Involved In Coating Tablets
1. Sugarcoating tablets
2. Film-coating tablets
3. Enteric coating
4. Pan coating
5. Fluid-bed or air suspension coating
6. Compression coating
Sugar coating
• It involves the application of sugar solution,The basic sugar
coating process involves following steps
a)Sealing
b)Sub-coating
c)Syruping
d)Polishing
Sealing:
• It is applied to prevent the moisture penetration into tablet
core.
• Materials used are - shellac, zein, Oleic acid,
alcohol,methylene chloride.
• Zein is alcohol-soluble protein derivative.
Subcoating:
• It is applied to round the edges and build up the tablet size.
• Sub coating increases the tablet weight from 50 to 100
percent.
• Materials used are - Gelatin, sugarcane powder, corn syrup,
starch , distilled water, Gum acacia
Syruping:
• This step is to cover and fill in the imperfections in the tablet
surface caused by the sub coating step and to impart the
desired color to tablet.
• The first syrup coats usually contain some suspended
powders and are called “Grossing syrups”.Dilute colorants can
be added to this phase. • In subsequent syruping steps, syrup
solutions containing the dye are applied until the final size and
color achieved.
Polishing:
• The desired luster to the tablet is obtained by polishing.
• Materials used are - carnauba wax, bees wax,paraffin wax.
Film coating
• It is a process that involves the deposition of a thin, but
uniform film on to the surface of the substrate.
• These tablets are far more resistant to destruction by
abrasion than are sugarcoated tablets.
• Materials used in film coating are:
a) Polymers (non enteric and enteric)
b) Solvents
c) Plasticizers
d) Colorants
Polymers in non-enteric coating:
They are incorporated to give uniform film with desired
mechanical strength which are as follows
[Link] Methylcellulose (HPMC) USP
2. Ethyl cellulose NF
3. Sodium carboxymethylcellulose USP
•
Polymers in enteric coating:
[Link] acetate phthalate (CAP) • It is widely used. It is
hygroscopic and relatively permeable to moisture and gastric
fluids in comparison with some other enteric polymers.
[Link] • Two forms of commercially available enteric
acrylic resins are Eudragit L & Eudragit S.
film-coating machine
Quality control of tablets
[Link] of tablets
2. Appearance
3. Content of active ingredient in tablets
4. Uniformity of weight
5. Disintigration test for tablets
6. Dissolution test for tablets
7. Mechanical strength
8. Friability test
Shape of tablets
• In the pharmacopoeia the shape of a tablet is defined
as circular with flat or convex faces.
77
Appearance
• When a broken section of an uncoated tablet is
examined under a lens, either a relatively uniform
texture (single-layer tablets) or a stratified structure
(multi-layer tablets) is seen.
• There should be no signs of coating
• Coated tablets have a smooth and often coloured
surface.
78
3. Content of
active ingredient
• Generallyin
20 tablets
tablets or such other number as may be
indicated in the monograph are used in the assay.
• Where 20 tablets cannot be obtained, a
smaller number, which must not be less than 5, may
be used.
• In such cases, the limits specified in the monograph
may be relaxed to the extent indicated.
• Limits are between 90 and 110 per cent.
• For limits less than 90 or greater than 110 per
cent proportionately a larger allowance is to be made.
79
4. Uniformity of
• It is
weight
desirable that every individual tablet in a batch
should be uniform in weight, but a small variation in the
weight of the individual tablet is liable to occur.
• Therefore a litter variation is allowed in the weight of a
tablet by the pharmacopoeia.
• Weight 20 tablets selected at random and determine their
average weight.
• Not more than 2 of the individual weights may deviate
form the average weight by more than the percentage
deviation given.
80
4. Uniformity of content
• Tablets must comply with the requirements for uniformity of
content specified in the individual monograph.
• Percentage of medicament is calculated by doing assay for a
particular drug, the method of which is
given inagainstthe
pharmacopoeia its monograph.
• As per the pharmacopoeia 20 tablets are taken, powdered and
assayed.
• The average weight of medicament present in
each tablet is calculated which is then compared with the
• desired weight.
The pharmacopoeia has prescribed the limit in percentage of
medicament per tablet in the monograph.
81
4. Uniformity of content
• The variation in percentage of medicament per tablet
is due to the following reasons:
1. Weighing of materials before granulation
2. During the process of granulation
3. Variation in the weight of an individual tablet
4. Error of random sampling
5. Analysis error
6. Purity of medicament
82
5. Disintegration test for
tablet
• Disintegration of a tablet means to break the tablet
into smaller particles after swallowing.
• The time required to disintegrate the tablet is called
‘Disintegration Time”.
• The rate of disintegration depends upon the type of
the tablet.
• The tablets which are dissolved by slow solution in
the mouth or chewed or are to be dissolved in water
before administration, do not need a disintegration
test.
83
5. Disintegration test for
tablet
• The test of disintegration is required in tablets which
are swallowed.
• The rate of disintegration differs from tablet to tablet
because the nature of the drug.
• In some cases the disintegration time is as short as
one minute and in other cases it may be as long as 30
minutes.
• In general, Pharmacopoeia prescribed a limited of 15
minutes for most of the tablets, unless otherwise
indicated in the monograph.
47
The disintegration test
apparatus
85
Disintigration Tester
6. Dissolution test
for tablets
• The test is done for measuring the amount of time
required for a given percentage of the drug substance
in a tablet to go into solution under specified
condition in vitro.
• The apparatus used for the test is as per specification
given in I.P. (Indian Pharmacopoeia)
87
Dissolution test apparatus
88
Dissolution Tester
7. Mechanical strength
• The Pharmacopoeia has not fixed any standard for the
mechanical strength or hardness of tablets.
• The manufacturers have employed their own tests to
ensure that their tablets will withstand the normal risk
of handling and transportation.
• The following devices are commonly used by
manufacturers to find out the mechanical strength of
tablets:
1. Monsanto hardness tester
2. Pfizer tablet hardness tester
90
Monsanto hardness tester
91
Pfizer tablets hardness tester
92
Tablet Hardness Tester
8. Friability
• Normally test
during the course of compression of
sufficient
tablets
pressure
a is applied on the granules, so that the
tablets can withstand the wear and tear during transportation
and handling.
• But in spite of observing all the precautions, the tablets show
considerable powdering after normal handling, giving an
undesirable appearance.
• Friability test is performed to evaluate the ability of the tablet
to withstand wear and tear in packing, handling and
transporting.
• The apparatus used to perform this test is known as
“Friabilator”.
94
Friabilator
95
Friability Tester