Sources of

Water

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After this presentation, we can able to understand about

Able to know about water cycle

Can understand the various types of surface water

Can able to determine the capacity of impounded reservoir

Various types of ground water

Can understand about rainfall harvesting

Able to make best selection of water resources

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 Sources of
Water
Classification of
Sources of Water
Surface Sources

SubSurface
Geological
Condition Ground Sources

Selection Of Water
Sources
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Surface Ground
Sources of Water water
water

River
Springs
Stream
Wells
Lakes

Ponds Infiltration Gallery

Impounded Reservoir Infiltration Wells

 The Hydrological Cycle
[Link]
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 Phenomena of Water Cycle
1 Evaporation Conversion of liquid water into gaseous
state

2 Condensation Conversion of vapor into liquid

3 Precipitation Any form water that falls on earth surface
4 Infiltration Absorption of water into the soil layer
5 Runoff Flow of precipitated water from high to low
elevation below or above the surface

6 Evapotranspiration Release of water vapor from plants into air

7 Subsurface flow Flow of water below the ground surface
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Surface Sources

Fig: Stream
Fig: River Fig: Impounded Reservoir

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Fig: Lake Fig: Pond 7
River

• A river is a natural channel that carries surface run off from high
gradient path
to low gradient path.
• Receives runoff from catchment area or drainage basin.
• Size increases as tributaries increases.

Types of river

Perennial river(water is available

throughtout the
year) Fig: River
[Link]
Non Perennial river 8
Hydraulic Structures Built Across the River:

Fig : Dam-Creating Reservoir

Fig:Barrage-Diverting the flow

[Link]
Fig:Weir–Accumulate the flow 9
Quality of River/Stream Water

• At Higher Altitudes: Better Quality

• At Lower Altitudes: Poor Quality due to

Fig: Marsyandi River
sediments

• Near Populated Cities: Worst Quality

[Link]
[Link] Fig : Bagmati River 10
Stream

• Natural Drainage Channel found in

Mountainous Region

• Smaller Size, Depth and Catchment

Area than River

• Quality of water is good except the

first Run off.

Fig:Stream

[Link]

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Types of Stream Based on Groundwater
Flow:

Fig : Gaining Stream Fig: Losing Stream

[Link] 12
 Lake
A large natural depression that gets filled up
with water is called Lake.
• Found in mountain and hilly areas
• Quality –Depends upon the catchment
characteristics.
• Quantity –Depends on following factors:
1. Size of Lake
2. Catchment Area
3. Annual Rainfall
4. Porosity of Ground
5. Geological Formations
6. Orientation of GWT Fig : Lake
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Ponds

Natural/Artificial depression found in plain areas smaller than lake is

Pond

 Bad quality of water

Must be properly treated before use

 Not used as water supply source

Fig Section of Pond

Less quantity of water
[Link]

Can be used for animal bathing and irrigation purposes

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Impounded Reservoir

 Basin constructed in the valley of a stream or river

for the purpose of holding stream flow.

 stored water may be used when water supply is

insufficient. E.g. Sundarijal Dam

Two functions: i) To impound water for beneficial use

ii) To retard flood

Fig : Impounded Reservoir

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The location of impounded reservoir depends
upon
 The quality and quantity of water available
 Existence of suitable dam site
 Distance and elevation of reservoir
 Density and distribution of population
 Geological conditions etc.

The water quality is the same as in streams and rivers.

Fig: Impounded Reservoir [Link]

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Site Selection of Impounded Reservoir :

 Narrow river channel but

rapidly widening upstream.

 Quantity of water should

be sufficient

 Important infrastructures
should not get submerged.

 Site location in the

elevation to aid water flow
due to gravity
Fig: Narrow river channel
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 Capacity Determination:
• If in every month :
Inflow > Demand : No need of
reservoir.
• If in every month :
Total Inflow < Total Demand :Project not feasible.

 Methods of Capacity Determination :

1) Analytical method

2) Mass curve method

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 Analytical Method
Maximum
Cumulative
Surplus
+
Maximum
Cumulative

-
Deficit
Capacity
Total Inflow

+
Total Demand

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Q) The yield of water from the catchment area is given below .
Determine analytically the minimum storage capacity of the
impounded reservoir to maintain 3 a constant draft of 4.4 mill m of
water per month . Neglect all losses and wastage

Mon Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Inflo 1.5 2.0 2.5 5.0 6.0 8.2 9.0 7.5 5.0 3.5 3.1 2.0
w
( Mil
m3 )

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Solution :
Here , Water Demand = 4.4 /
Mm Demandmont
3
Month Inflow Cum Inflow Cum Demand Cum Surplus Cum Deficit
h
Jan 1.5 4.4 1.5 4.4 2.9
Feb 2.0 4.4 3.5 8.8 5.3
Mar 2.5 4.4 6.0 13.2 7.2
Apr 5.0 4.4 11.0 17.6 6.6
May 6.0 4.4 17.0 22.0 5.0
Jun 8.2 4.4 25.2 26.4 1.2
Jul 9.0 4.4 34.2 30.8 3.4
Aug 7.5 4.4 41.7 35.2 6.5
Sep 5.0 4.4 46.7 39.6 7.1
Oct 3.5 4.4 50.2 44.0 6.2
Nov 3.1 4.4 53.3 48.4 4.9
Dec 2.0 4.4 55.3 52.8 2.5
Total 55.3 52.8

Capacity of impounded reservoir

=Max Cum. Surplus+Max. Cum. Deficit–Total Inflow+ Total Demand
= 7.1+7.2-55.3+52.8= 11.8 Mm3 21
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Subsurface Geological Formation
a) Aquifer : Water bearing permeable layer.
i) Unconfined aquifer
ii) Confined aquifer
b) General Introduction to Aquiclude, Aquifuge and Aquitard

Fig: Artesian Well 23

Aquifer
An aquifer is an underground layer of water bearing permeable rock,
rock
fractures or unconsolidated materials (gravel, sand, or silt) from
which groundwater can be extracted using a water well.

Type of Aquifer

•Confined Aquifer
Those bodies of water that accumulate in the permeable
rock and are
enclosed between two impermeable layers.

•Unconfined Aquifer
An unconfined aquifer groundwater level coincides with the
surface
and is in direct contact with the soil under saturated zone
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Aquitard
•It is a formation through which only seepage is possible and thus the
yield is less compared to an aquifer
•Appreciable quantities of water may leak to an aquifer below it
• It is partly permeable. e.g. sandy clay or silty clay

Aquiclude
•It is porous but not permeable
•Argillaceous rocks like shale and clay are typical examples. (Clay,
shale)

Aquifuge
•It is neither porous nor permeable.
•There are no interconnected openings and hence it cannot
transmit water
• Naturally these are not suitable for ground water occurrence.
Massive granites and quartzite are typical examples. 25
In Summary

Aquifers Having
both porosity and per
meability
Aquitard Having
porosity but limited
permeability.
Aquicludes Having porosity but no
permeability

Aquifuge Having neither porosity

nor permeability.

Fig : Showing type of Aquifer , Aquiclude ,Aquitard

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 Ground Sources [Link]

 Exists below the ground surface

 The quality is generally good due to
natural filtrating capacity
 Tends to have high mineral contents

Minerals Problems
Iron and Taste Fig: Infiltration gallery
Manganese Odour
Colour

Calcium and Water hard

Magnesium
Iron and Sulphide Rotten egg odour

Fig: Spring 27
Springs
A natural flow of ground water as current or stream of flowing water.

1)Gravity Springs 2)Non gravity springs

• Resulting from non gravitational
• Resulting from • forces
gravitational
forces
Types
 Volcanic Springs
Types  Fissure springs
 Depression Springs
 Contact or Surface Springs
 Artesian Springs

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 Gravity Springs
• Resulting from gravitational forces

a) Depression springs
 Formed due to overflowing of the water table
where the ground surface intersects water
table .

 The flow is variable with the rise or fall of wat

er table

 In order to meet with such fluctuations, a dee

p
trench may be constructed.

 The saturated ground above the elevation of Fig :Depression Spring

[Link] 29
Prof. Dr. Kansakar2015
b. Contact or surface springs

 Created by a permeable water

bearing
formation over lying a less
permeable or
impermeable formation that
 Relatively small amount of underground
intersects
storage available
the ground above the elevation of
surface.
the overflow crest.

 The flow from them is uncertain and likel

y to cease after a drought.

 Suchsprings can also be developed by th

e
cconstruction of a cutoff trench or a cutofFig : Contact Spring
[Link]
 c. Artesian Spring

 They result from release of water

under pressure from confined aquifers

either at an outcrop of the aquifer or
through
 The amount of water available in an artesian
an opening in the confining bed
spring may be large
if the catchment area is large

 The flow may be

slightly increased by removal of
obstructions from the mouth of the spring

Fig : Artesian spring

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Non gravity springs
• Resulting from non gravitational forces

Volcanic Spring
 Associated with volcanic rocks

Fissure spring
 Results from fractures extending to
the great depths in the earth’s crust

 These are also called hot springs

 Contain high minerals as well as sulphur also

Uses
o Not for Domestic purposes
o Some may be useful for the cure of skin diseases 32
Wells
A well is a hole or shaft , usually vertical extended in the ground for
bringing ground water to the surface.
It can be classified into

1) Open Well or Dug Well 2)Tube Well

 Comparatively large diameter  Comparatively small

diameter
 low yields and are not very deep
 Very deep
 The diameter usually vary from 1
to 10 meters.  Depth ranges from 30 to
600 meters
 The depth ranges from 2 to 20
meters.
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1)Open Wells/Dug Wells

o These are constructed by digging hence also

called dug wells.

o The walls may be of brick, stone masonry

or precast rings.

o Thickness of wall varies from 0.5 to 0.75 m depending

upon the depth of the well.

It is also further classified as following two types

Fig: Open Well
[Link]
i. Shallow Open Well a. Gravity well

ii. Deep Open Well b. Pressure

well 34
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Shallow Open Wells Deep Open Wells

Rest on top water bearing strata Rest on impervious strata

Draw and Supplies from surrounding Draw and Supplies from permeable
material formation lying below impervious strata

Yield is less and uncertain due to variation in Yield is more and uniform as there is no
groundwater table fluctuations in water level

Used as a source for individual household Used for small community

Contain large amount of suspended particles May contain dissolved minerals

and bacterial contamination

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a) Gravity wells
o The water flows under gravity into the well and rises to the height
saturated material surrounding it
b) Pressure wells/Artesian wells
o Artesian wells coincide with the confined aquifer .
o The water is provided to the surface without any sort of assistance
when there is enough pressure in the aquifer.

Fig: Artesian Well 37

2) Tube Wells

- It is a long pipe sunk into the ground intercepting one or more water
bearing stratum.

The diameter are more or less as compared to the open well.

Shallow Wells : Max 30m
Deep Wells : Max 600m

These tube wells may be classified as:

i) Strainer type tube well

ii) Cavity type tube well
iii)Slotted type tube well

Fig : Tube Well

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Cavity type of tube well
- Borehole is dug until it finds the
previous layer of water.

- Pumping is done and sandy water is

withdrawn

- Cavity formation occurs at the sandy

layer and thus water enters the sand
pore at critical velocity but less than in
the cavity

- Thus after some time clear water is

obtained

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Strainer Type of tube
well
- If not stated tube well means
Strainer type.

- The Strainer pipes and blinds

pipes are alternately placed.

- Strainer consist of Fine wire

mesh wrapped round a perforated
pipe.

- Size of opening of wire mesh

=D60, D70 of surrounding soil.

Fig: Strainer Type Tube Well

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 Slotted type tube well
Derives water from aquifer using pipe and casing

[Link] 41
Infiltration Gallery

- Structure built to intercept and collect

the groundwater flowing into river or
lake

-Horizontal or nearly horizontal tunnel ,

usually rectangular (arched also)
in cross section

-Also known as Horizontal Well

-It is generally located near a perennial

recharge source such as the bank or
under bed of a river and 3 to 10 meters
below the ground

-The quantity and quality depends Fig :Infiltration Gallery

upon the location and area of coverage.
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 - Shallow wells constructed in
Infiltration
series alongWells
the bank of river to
collect the water seeping through
the bank.

- Constructed of brick Masonry

-
For purpose of inspection, manhole
is
provided
in the top cover of the well.

- Water has to pass through sand

bed
and gets purified to some extent.

- Water flow from infiltration well 43

to jack well by gravity
Selection of Water Sources
a. Location
 It should be near to the consumer’s area or town as far as possible.
 Location may be at higher elevation

b. Quantity of Water
 Meet the demand for that design period in the wet and dry seasons also.
 If possible, there should be sufficient supply for future extension of proje
t.

c. Quality of Water
 The water should be safe and free from pathogenic bacteria, germs and p
ollution.

d. Cost
 Gravity system of flow is generally cheaper than pumping.
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