Microevolution:
Changes within
populations
Andrea Botero
Microevolution
• Changes in genotype of populations of a species over
time
• Phenotype = Genotype +
Environment
Variation in • Populations have
natural phenotypic variation
populations • Mostly quantitative:
Individuals differ in small,
incremental ways
Quantitative vs Qualitative
variation
Quantitative: Qualitative:
• Follows a normal • 2 or more discrete
distribution curve states, intermediate
• Wider= more variation forms absent
• Mean= average value • Polymorphic traits
of the character
Quantitative vs Qualitative
variation
Quantitative: Qualitative:
• Vary in degree and • Distinct categories
can be measured
Classify the next traits
• Freckles • Height
• Leaf area in canola • Flower color in
• Blood pressure
peas
• Earlobe • Milk production
attachment • Root length
• Fruit weight • Yield
• Skin color • Pea seed color
• Hair texture • Fruit size
• Blood types • Cleft chin
Phenotype
• Phenotype= Genotype+ Environment
• Only genotype is inherited
Oats
Schulte-Hostedde et al. 2018
Chen et al. 2022
Farkas et al. 2013
Population genetics: Important
concepts
• Gene: Segment of DNA that contains
instructions for building a specific protein or set
of proteins
• Passed from parents to offspring
• Located in locus (plural: loci)
• Allele: Variant of a gene
• Ploidy: Number of chromosome sets in a cell
• Haploid (n): 1 set of chromosomes (gametic cells)
• Diploid (2n): 2 sets of chromosomes (somatic cells)
How do alleles work?
Y: Chlorophyll
breakdown gene
present = Yellow
y: Chlorophyll
breakdown gene
absent/non-functional
=Green
How do alleles work?
Y: Chlorophyll
breakdown gene
present = Yellow
y: Chlorophyll
breakdown gene
absent/non-functional
Homozygous: Two
=Green
copies of same allele
Heterozygous: One
copy of different
alleles
How do alleles work?
A and B: A and B
antigen (Dominant)
O: H antigen
(Recessive)
Anso et al. 2023
How do alleles work?
CR CR : Protein involved
in anthocyanins
synthesis (Red flowers)
CWCW : Anthocyanins
are not produced
(Whyte flowers)
CR CW: Anthocyanins
are produced (Pink
flowers). Incomplete Anso et al. 2023
dominance.
Refined concept of evolution
• Evolution is a change in allele frequencies from one
generation to the next
• Gene pool: Total genetic variability of a population is
represented by all the alleles at all the gene loci in all
individuals within the population
Allele frequencies: Incomplete
dominance
p : Frequency of
allele 1
q: Frequency of allele
2
p+q=1
Flower Color Genotype # individuals phenotype Total Total
phenotype frequency Number of Number of
Alleles CR Alleles Cw
Red CRCR 450 450/1000=0.4 2*450=900 0*450=0
5
Pink CRCw 500 500/1000=0.5 1*500=500 1*500=500
White C wC w 50 50/1000=0.05 0*50=0 2*50=100
Allele frequencies: Incomplete
dominance
Flower Color Genotype # individuals Genotype Total Total
phenotype frequency Number of Number of
Alleles CR Alleles Cw
Red CRCR 450 450/1000=0.4 2*450=900 0*450=0
5
Pink CRCw 500 500/1000=0.5 1*500=500 1*500=500
White C wC w 50 50/1000=0.05 0*50=0 2*50=100
Total 1000 0.45+0.5+0.0 1400 600
Total alleles in population: 5=1
1400+600=2000
p+q=0.7+0.3=1
p:Frequecy of CR allele
p=1400/2000=0.7
q:Frequecy of Cw allele
q= 600/2000=0.3
Allele frequencies: Incomplete
dominance
Cc cc
CC Cc
Hair type Genotype # individuals Phenotype Total Total
phenotype frequency Number of Number of
Alleles CR Alleles Cw
Curly CC 600
Wavy Cc 250
Straight cc 20
Total
Allele frequencies: Incomplete
dominance
Hair type Genotype # individuals Genotype Total Total
phenotype frequency Number of Number of
Alleles C Alleles c
Curly CC 600 600/870=0.69 2*600=1200 0*600=0
Wavy Cc 250 250/870=0.29 1*250=250 1*250=250
Straight cc 20 20/870=0.02 0*20=0 2*20=40
Total 870 1 1450 290
Total alleles in population:
1450+290=1740
p+q=0.83+0.17=1
p:Frequecy of C allele Cc cc
p=1450/1740=0.83
q:Frequecy of c allele
CC
q= 290/1740=0.17 Cc
Hardy-Weinberg principle
• Tells us relative proportions of genotypes in a population when
segregation is the only factor that changes genotypes
frequencies
• Considered null hypothesis of evolution
Genetic equilibrium only possible if:
1. No mutations: No new alleles are added to the gene pool.
2. Random mating: Individuals pair up by chance, not by choice.
3. No natural selection: All individuals have an equal chance to
survive and reproduce.
4. Large population size: The population is so large that chance
events don't change allele frequencies.
5. No migration: No new individuals enter or leave the population.
Hardy-Weinberg principle
• Provides formula to predict frequencies of genotypes in
populations
• Homozygous dominant (AA) frequency=p2
• Heterozygous (Aa) frequency=2pq
• Homozygous recessive (aa) frequency=q2
p+q=1
p2 +2pq+ q2 =1
Allele frequencies: Complete
dominance
Seed color Genotype # individuals
phenotype
Green yy 510
Yellow YY/Yy 490
Total 1000
[Link] recessive genotype:
q
p
2. Genotype frequencies
Homozygous dominant (YY)
Homozygous recessive (yy)
Heterozygous (Yy)
Allele frequencies: Complete
dominance
Seed color Genotype # individuals
phenotype
Green yy 510
Yellow YY/Yy 490
Total 1000
[Link] recessive 2. Calculate p
genotype: p+q=1
q2= 510/1000 p+0.71=1
q2=0.51 p=1-0.71
q=√0.51=0.71 p=0.29
Allele frequencies: Complete
dominance
Seed color Genotype # individuals
phenotype
Green yy 510
Yellow YY/Yy 490
Total 1000
[Link] recessive genotype:
q=0.71
2. Calculate p
p=0.29
3. Genotype frequencies
Homozygous dominant (YY): p2=(0.29)2=0.084
Homozygous recessive (yy): q2=(0.71)2=0.504
Heterozygous (Yy): 2pq=2*0.29*0.71=0.411
Allele frequencies: Incomplete
dominance
Flower Color Genotype # individuals
phenotype
Red CRCR 450
Pink CRCw 500
White C wC w 50
Total 1000
[Link] recessive 2. Calculate p
genotype: p+q=1
q2= 50/1000 p=1-0.22
q2=0.05 p=0.78
q=√0.05
q=0.22
Allele frequencies: Incomplete
dominance
Flower Color Genotype # individuals
phenotype
Red CRCR 450
Pink CRCw 500
White C wC w 50
Total 1000
[Link] recessive genotype:
q=0.22
2. Calculate p
p=0.78
3. Genotype frequencies
Homozygous dominant (YY): p2=(0.78)2=0.61
Homozygous recessive (yy): q2=(0.22)2=0.05
Heterozygous (Yy): 2pq=2*0.22*0.78=0.34
Allele frequencies: Incomplete
dominance
Flower Genotype #
Color individuals
phenotype
Red CRCR 450
Pink CRCw 500
White C wC w 50
Total 1000
4. Expected # individuals phenotypes
3. Genotype frequencies
Homozygous dominant (YY): 0.61*1000=610
Homozygous dominant (YY): p2=(0.78)2=0.61
Homozygous recessive (yy): 0.05*1000=50
Homozygous recessive (yy): q2=(0.22)2=0.05
Heterozygous (Yy): 0.34*1000=340
Heterozygous (Yy): 2pq=2*0.22*0.78=0.34
Allele frequencies: Incomplete
dominance
Flower Genotyp Genotype Genotype Genotype Genotype Genotype
Color e frequenci frequenci frequenci frequenci
phenotyp es es Hardy- es es Hardy-
e Phenotyp Weinberg Phenotyp Weinberg
e table principle e table principle
Red CRCR 0.45 0.61 p (CR) 0.7 0.78
Pink CRCw 0.5 0.34 q (Cw) 0.3 0.22
White C wC w 0.05 0.05 Total 1 1
Total
Allele frequencies: Observed
phenotypes vs Hardy-Weinberg
principle
Genotype frequencies Genotype frequencies
Phenotype table Hardy-Weinberg
principle
Strengths • Uses observed data from • Theoretical baseline
population under the assumption of
• Reflects actual genotype and Hardy-Weinberg
phenotype frequencies. equilibrium.
• Understanding allele
frequencies in a
theoretical context or
when comparing
against observed data.
Weaknesses • Can be influenced by sampling • Assumes the population
error or inaccuracies in is in Hardy-Weinberg
phenotype classification. equilibrium.
• Assumes the sample is
representative and that
Agents of microevolution
• Population alleles frequencies will change over time if
any of the Hardy-Weinberg principle are violated
• Processed that can disrupt Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium
and cause evolution:
1. Gene flow
2. Genetic drift
3. Mutation
4. Natural selection
5. Sexual selection
1. Gene flow
Change in alleles
frequencies due to
migration into or out of
the population
Importance driving
evolutionary change
• Difference in gene
pool between
populations
• Rate of gene flow
into and out of the
population
2. Genetic drift
• Change in allele
frequency by chance
• Major impact especially
in small populations
• Leads to reduced
genetic diversity rare
alleles are often lost
Clark et al.,2020
2. Genetic drift
• Change in allele frequency by chance
• Major impact especially in small populations
• Leads to reduced genetic diversity rare alleles are
often lost
Driven by:
1. FOUNDER EFFECT
2. POPULATION BOTTLENECKS
2. Genetic drift: Founder effect
• Few individuals colonize distant locality
• Small gene pool= some alleles are lost, and maybe rare
alleles might be common
2. Genetic drift: Founder effect
Ashkenazi jews The Old Order Amish
18 genetic diseases are Closed religion Lancaster, Pennsylvania
found predominantly Ellis-van Creveld syndrome
• 1:30 individuals are • 1:200
carriers of TSD • 1:60000 in general population
• Carrier rate in non-jewish All children with the syndrome can be
populations <1:300 traced back to a single couple that
emigrated in the mid-1700s
2. Genetic drift: Founder effect
Subalusky et al.
2023
• Initial population 3 females 1 male imported in 1981 from
a zoo in USA
• There are 91 hippos in the Middle Magdalena River basin
2. Genetic drift: Population
bottleneck
Large reduction in
population size that is
associated with a
decrease in gene pool
Significant percentage of
a population or species is
killed or otherwise
prevented from
reproducing.
[Link]
[Link]
• Rare alleles can be
eliminated
2. Genetic drift: Population
bottleneck
Large reduction in population size that is associated with
a decrease in gene pool
• Rare alleles can be eliminated
Northern elephant seals
• Hunting reduced their population size to as few as
20 individuals at the end of the 19th century.
• Their population has since rebounded to over
30,000
• They have much less genetic variation than a
population of southern elephant seals that was not
so intensely hunted
3. Mutations
• Change to DNA sequence
• Result from:
• Errors during DNA replication
• Transposable elements
• Does not allow for rapid change of populations, but is the
ONLY microevolutionary process that gives rise to genetic
novelty
3. Mutations
• Keep in mind:
• For mutations to alter allele
frequency they should occur in cells
that will produce gametes
• Do not tend to increase fitness
• Not very common 0.000 000 03%
Futuyma and Kirkpatrick
3. Mutations
• Keep in mind:
• Random and
spontaneous
• Not directed
Futuyma and Kirkpatrick
3. Mutations Features
• Pleiotropy: Single mutation
affects multiple traits
• Fitness: most mutations are
deleterious, and some are
beneficial.
• Most deleterious are recessive.
• Reason for low mutation rate
3. Mutations types
1. Substitutions: Single nucleotide is changed
2. Insertion: One or more nucleotides are inserted
3. Deletion: One or more nucleotides are deleted
4. Inversion: Segment of DNA breaks off and inserts
back into its original position in reverse orientation
5. Duplication: DNA is copied twice
3. Mutations types
3. Mutations types
Original DNA sequence:
ATG CGT AAC GGT TAC
Mutated sequences
GTG CGT AAC GGT TAC
ATG CGT CGA AAC GGT TAC
ATG AGT AAC GGT TAC
ATG AAC GGT TAC
ATG CGT TGG CAA TAC
ATG CGT AAC GGT TAC GGT TAC
3. Mutations types
Original DNA sequence:
ATG CGT AAC GGT TAC
Mutated sequences
GTG CGT AAC GGT TAC Substitution
ATG CGT CGA AAC GGT TAC Insertion
ATG AGT AAC GGT TAC Substitution
ATG AAC GGT TAC Deletion: ATG CGT AAC GGT
TAC
ATG CGT TGG CAA TAC Inversion
ATG CGT AAC GGT TAC GGT TAC Duplication
3. Mutations types: Find the
mutation
Original DNA sequence:
TAC GGA CTT AGC GAT
Mutated sequences
TAC GGA CTT AGC GAT
TAC GGA CTT AGC GAT AGC GAT
TAC GGA CTT CGA GAT
TAC GGA CTT ACC GAT
TAC GCG ACT TAG CGA T
3. Mutations types: Find the
mutation
Original DNA sequence:
TAC GGA CTT AGC GAT
Mutated sequences
TAC GGA CTT AGC GAT Deletion
TAC GGA CTT AGC GAT AGC GAT Duplication
TAC GGA CTT CGA GAT Inversion
TAC GGA CTT ACC GAT Substitution
TAC GCG ACT TAG CGA T Insertion
4. Natural selection
• Favors some combinations of traits over others=
differential survivorship and reproduction
• 3 models:
1. Directional selection
2. Stabilizing selection
3. Disruptive selection
4. Natural selection: Directional
selection
Individuals near one end of
the phenotype spectrum have
the highest relative fitness
• Traits mean is higher or
lower than before after
selection
• Variability might be reduced
[Link]
4. Natural selection: Directional
selection
Fiches in the Galapagos Islands
4. Natural selection: Directional
selection
Individuals near one end of the phenotype
spectrum have the highest relative fitness
• Breeding= Directional selection
4. Natural selection: Stabilizing
selection
Individuals expressing
intermediate phenotypes have
highest fitness= elimination of
phenotypic extremes
[Link]
variation-1
4. Natural selection: Disruptive
selection
Extreme phenotypes higher
relative fitness than
intermediate phenotypes
[Link]
variation-1
Summary: Microevolution
mechanisms
Evolutionary Effect on Genetic Effect on Average
Definition
Agent Variation Fitness
Movement of genes
Can be good or bad, it
from one population to Brings new genes from
Gene Flow depends on the genes
another (like birds other populations
coming in
migrating)
Random changes in
Random, but often
gene frequencies due to Reduces variation
Genetic Drift harmful because it can
chance (like flipping a (fewer types of genes)
remove helpful genes
coin)
Survival of the fittest Can increase or
Natural (organisms with helpful decrease variation, Usually positive because
Selection traits survive and depending on the helpful traits increase
reproduce more) environment
Mutation Changes in DNA New genetic variation Can be good or bad
Non-random mating
• In many organisms mating isn’t random
• Not in all cases
• Types:
• Inbreeding
• Sexual selection
Non-random mating: Sexual
selection
• Specific aspects of
individuals
selected for
mating
• Favors individuals Peacoc
with certain traits k
increasing their Stag
fitness beetle
• Usually acts on
males
Bird of paradise
• Pushes
[Link]
phenotypes to one
Hardy-Weinberg principle
• Considered null hypothesis of evolution
Genetic equilibrium only possible if:
1. No mutations violated by mutation
2. Random mating: Individuals pair up by chance, not by
choice.
3. No natural selection violated by: Natural selection
4. Large population size violated by: Genetic drift
5. No migration violated by: Gene flow
Migration introduces/
Gene Flow
eliminate alleles
Founder effect
Microevolut
Change in alleles
Genetic drift
frequency by chance
Population bottleneck
ion
Only agent that
Cause of change on Change in DNA
Mutation introduces genetic
alleles frequency sequence
novelty
Directional
Survival and
reproduction of
Natural selection Stabilizing
organisms with
advantageous traits
Sexual selection Disruptive
Foundation: Observed as Genetic source
Variation different phenotypes of variation
among = Genotype+ alleles: variants
individuals Environment of genes
Evoluti
on Alleles in
diploid
organisms are
in pairs
Individuals are
Changes in alleles homozygous =
frequencies in a alleles
population Heterozygous ≠
alleles