CROP PROTECTION – Principle of Crop Protection

Reynaldo Juarez Canono, Ph.D.

Central Philippines State University
INTRODUCTION
 Insects are so much part of our environment. They are
found everywhere – in cities, parks, homes and gardens;
buildings and conveyance, farms and forests; soil, air and
water; and on bodies of man and domestic animals.
 This module presents the insects, their relatives, the
difference between an insect and a mite, the
characteristics that made them very successful group of
arthropods, effects of insects to man and agriculture,
recognition of insect orders, and representative insect
pests of major crops.
Learning Objectives
 At the end of this module, learners are expected to:
 Define entomology;
 Distinguish insects from other arthropod and vertebrate pests
 Characterize insects that made them very successful groups of
arthropods;
 Relate the beneficial and negative effects of insect to man and
agriculture;
 Recognize insect orders; and
 Distinguish insect pests and important considerations to make in
the formulation of strategies/programs for their management.
Entomology Defined

 Entomology is defined as the scientific

study of insects and related arthropods
(Ross and Jacques, 1981). It originated
from the Greek word “entomos” meaning
“to cut” or “segmented” and “logos”
meaning study.
Specialized Fields of Entomology

 Insect morphology deals with phylogenetic study of external and

internal structures of insects and other arthropods.
 Insect physiology deals with comparative physiology of insects,
its functional mechanisms and physiological bases of behavior.
 Insecticide toxicology deals with chemical and physical
properties, formulations, biological effects and behavior of
insecticides.
 Insect taxonomy studies classification, biology and evolutionary
relationships among the higher insect taxa, including taxonomic
methods and curating insect collections.
Specialized Fields of Entomology

 Insect ecology studies the dynamics of insect population

specifically their abundance, regulation, distribution and
mensuration. It also deals with theories pertaining natural control
of pest species.
 Economic entomology deals with bionomics and control of the
major agricultural insect and mite pests of crop plants.
 Veterinary entomology deals with bionomics and control of
insects and other arthropods which affect domestic animals.
 Industrial entomology deals with life history, behavior and
utilization of insects, which provide products useful to man such
as honeybees, silkworm and the like.
Recognizing an Insect and a Mite
 Insects and mites belong to the Phylum Arthropoda (Greek
words: arthro = joint or segment; poda = foot/leg or appendage).
 The arthropods make up about 80% of all animal species.
 Arthropods possess the following characteristics: (Baltazar and
Salazar, 1979)
 bilaterally symmetrical,
 hard, chitinous exoskeleton,
 segmented body with paired segmented appendages,
 sclerotized exoskeleton made up of chitin, a nitrogenous
polysaccharide
Under the phylum Arthropoda are
two subphyla:

 Chelicerata: body divided into 2 regions: cephalothorax and

abdomen; with 6 pairs of appendages. Near the mouth are the
chelicerae- the first pair, and pedipalps - the second pair; the
remaining 4 pairs are locomotory, without antenna (spiders, mites,
ticks, scorpions, crabs, sowbugs)

 Mandibulata: head separate from the thorax; with a pair of well-

developed mandibles acting as cutting and grinding structures
with numerous modifications; head with 1 or 2 antennae ans 3 or
4 pairs of feeding appendages or mouthparts. (insects, millipedes,
centipedes)
Distinguishing characteristics of insects and
their relatives (Phylum Arthropoda)

Class Arachnida (spiders, mites, ticks,

scorpions, etc)
 Body regions: prosoma (cephalothorax) and
opisthosoma (abdomen)
 Prosoma: chelicerae, pedipalps, and 4 pairs of
legs, with simple eyes, antenna absent
 Opisthosoma: locomotor appendages absent
Distinguishing characteristics of insects and
their relatives (Phylum Arthropoda)

Class Crustacea (crayfish)

 Body regions: varied; head and thorax covered dorsally
by unsegmented carapace, and distinctly segmented
abdomen
 Appendages biramous (branched into 2)
 Compound eyes on long stalk
 Head appendages: 2 pairs of antennae, a pair of
mandibles and 2 pairs of maxillae
Distinguishing characteristics of insects and
their relatives (Phylum Arthropoda)

Class Chilopoda (centipede)

 With distinct external segmentation
 Tagmata: head and trunk
 Head: 1 pair of antennae, 1 pair of mandibles,
2 pairs of maxillae Trunk: with 1 pair of leg per
segments
 Poison claws: appendages of the first trunk
segment held beneath the head resembling
mouthparts
Distinguishing characteristics of insects and
their relatives (Phylum Arthropoda)

Class Diplopoda (millipede)

• External segmentation obvious
• Head distinct with the following segment enlarged
dorsally (collum) resembling those of the trunk; trunk
composed of thorax and abdomen
• Thorax poorly differentiated from head and abdomen
• Thorax: with 1pair of legs on each of the 3 segments
• Body segments have fused into pairs so that each
apparent segment has 2 pairs of legs; Abdomen with
2 pairs of legs on apparent segments
Distinguishing characteristics of insects and
their relatives (Phylum Arthropoda)

 Class INSECTA
 3 body regions: head, thorax, abdomen
 3 pairs of legs in the adult stage
 With 1 or 2 pairs of wings, some have
none
 1 pair of segmented antennae
 2 kinds of eyes: (simple and compound)
GENERAL STRUCTURE OF AN
INSECT
 Insects are elongated, cylindrical and bilaterally symmetrical invertebrates. The
body is divided into three regions: the head, thorax and abdomen (Figure 1).
 The head bears the compound eyes and usually three simple eyes, distributed in a
triangular fashion in the vertex or forehead; the antenna and mouthparts. These
structures are used for sensation and ingestion.
 The next body region, the thorax is composed of three segments, (prothorax,
mesothorax and metathorax), each pair bearing a pair of legs, with the second and
thir
 segment of the insect.
 The posterior region of the body is the abdomen, consisting of as many as 11
segments and has no legs. The eighth, ninth and tenth segments usually have
appendages modified for mating activities or egg-laying.
 d segments each bearing a
The principal body regions and
components of the typical insect
The body wall (Exoskeleton)
Insects possess an external covering called integument
or exoskeleton. It is made up of chitin, a protein which
makes it water proof, flexible, sturdy, and resistant to
chemicals.
The external layer of the skeleton is covered by a waxen
layer called cuticle that is highly impenetrable to water.
In some insects, the exoskeleton is tanned and
hardened due to the deposition of sclerotin. This
provides sturdiness and water resistance while chitin
provides mobility.
Functions of exoskeleton

• Serves as the insect’s skeleton,

• provides support and shape to the insect
body,
• protecting its vital internal organs,
• serves as a framework for muscle
attachment;
• provides control in movement.
Main sclerites or areas of the head

There are more or less well-defined plates or regions or sclerites on the surface of the
head which are partitioned by shallow grooves called sutures (Figure 2).
Vertex: Sclerite located on top of the head capsule (dorsal surface) above the frons
between the compound eyes
Coronal suture: usually runs along the midline of the vertex and splits into two frontal
sutures as it extends downward across the front of the head capsule.
Frons: Triangular sclerite that lies between these frontal sutures; the anterior sclerite of
the head.
Epistomal suture is a deep groove that separates the base of the frons from the
clypeus.
Clypeus is a transverse sclerite on the lower front margin of the head capsule below
the frons.
Genae ("cheeks"): Lateral sclerites lying behind the frontal sutures on each side of the
head
Occiput: Horsecollar-shaped sclerite is located at the back of the head.
Figure 2. The common lines or grooves on the
insect head and the areas which they define.
Names of areas are italicized
The Insect Head

a . Usually a solid capsule (epicranium) without obvious

segmentation due to the complete fusion of 6 or 7 primitive segments
b. Specialized for food gathering and manipulation, sensory
perception and neural integration
c. Head capsule consists of: Vertex-dorsal aspect; Gena-cheek,
lateral aspect; Frons-anterior aspect; clypeus-lip-like sclerite;
Occiput, posterior aspect which connects to the thorax; the
mouthparts at the bottom or ventral aspect.
d. The head bears the eyes, a pair of antennae and the mouthparts.
Orientation of the insect head

The orientation of the head with

respect to the rest of the body is
variable (Figure 3). These types of
head directions are adaptations to
their different environments or manner
of feeding
.
Orientation of the insect head

1. Hypognathous head: the most primitive condition, with the head in vertical
position and the mouthparts directed ventrad or downward, e.g. grasshopper.
2. Prognathous head: in a horizontal orientation and the jaws are directed forward.
The cranium is turned upward on the neck so that the mouthparts are directed
forward, e.g. carnivorous insect, carabid beetles (actively hunt their prey).
3. Opisthognathous/opisthorrynchous head: with a posterior ventral position of the
mouthparts with a deflection of the facial region. Hence, the head is directed towards
the abdomen. The elongate proboscis slopes backward between the front legs, e.g.
cicada, all members of the orders: Homoptera/Heteroptera.
 Eyes

Insects have two kinds of eyes: the compound eyes and

the simple eyes or ocelli (singular, ocellus). The ocelli are
very well adapted to observe movement as well as
distinguishing between forms and colors.
Insect distinguish blue and yellow colors more easily
while red color cannot be seen. Hence, blue and white
are light are used in light traps
The ocelli appear to enhance light detection by the
compound eyes and to record cyclical changes in light
intensity that is connected with diurnal behavioral
rhythms.
Compound eyes

Located on each side of the head, consist of many hexagonal

elements called facets or corneal lenses.
The number of facets in a compound eye varies from only a
few in the springtails to as many as 28,000 as in the
dragonflies.
Faceted: Each lens consists of sensory cells representing the
outer portion of a single eye element or ommatidium
Large and occupy part of the vertex, frons, gena and occiput
Simple eyes (Ocelli)

Three ocelli, commonly arranged in triangular

fashion on the vertex between the compound eyes
Each lateral (or posterior) ocellus has a single lens,
that can perceive light but cannot form images. It
provides clues about intensity of light and influence
their level of activity.
The median (or anterior) ocellus was apparently
formed from two separate ocelli which became fused
together, and it is innervated from both sides of the
deutocerebrum.
Eyes

Vision in insects is based on the Theory of Mosaic

Vision. Each facet of the compound eye
accommodates only that part of the image
projected at a specified angle from the object. The
whole vision is influenced by simultaneous
performance of all ommatidia in which the image is
recognized. If some of these facets are injured, the
object as viewed by the insect will have lacking
pieces consistent to the loss of image due to the
nonfunctional lenses.
Antennae

The antennae are a pair of segmented appendages on

the head located usually between or below the
compound eyes.
The antennae are sensory in function, such as:
acting as tactile organs,
organs of smell (with olfactory receptors that detect
odor molecules in the air)
humidity receptors (detect changes in concentration of
water vapor)
organs of hearing (mosquitoes detect sounds)
gauge air speed during flight (flies)
Antennae

The antennae are divided into three basic parts,

namely:
Scape - basal segment that articulates with the head
capsule; contains intrinsic muscles and is generally
larger than the other segments.
Pedicel - second antennal segment; nearly always
contain a sensory organ called Johnston’s organ
Flagellum or clavola - remaining segments which
respond to the movement of the distal part of the
antennae relative to the pedicel;
 The insect antennae vary greatly in size and
shape and are much used in classification. The details
of the clavola are useful in differentiating between some
representative groups of insects and sometimes
between male and female of the same species.
Types of antennae (Adapted from
Borror, DeLong and Triplehorn, 1976)

Name/Description Appearance Example(s)

Setaceous (bristle- like) – segments becoming more

slender dorsally Dragonflies
Antenae

Filiform (thread-like) - segments nearly uniform in size,

usually cylindrical Grasshoppers and Cockroaches
Antenae

Moniliform (bead-like) - segments similar in

size, more or less cylindrical Termites
Antenae

Serrate (saw-toothed) - segments particularly the

distal half, more or less triangular Female giant
click beetle
Clavate (gradually clubbed) - segments gradually
increase in size distally Butterflies, carrion beetles
Antennae

Capitate (abruptly clubbed) – terminal segments are rather suddenly enlarged

Skin beetles
Lamellate – the terminal segments expanded laterally to form rounded or oval
plate-like lobes Scarab beetles
Flabellate – terminal segments with long, parallel-sided, sheet-like or tongue-like
lobes extending laterally Cedar beetle
Pectinate (comb-like) - most segments with long, slender lateral processes
Fire-colored beetles, Male glow-worms and Male giant click beetles
Plumose (brush-like or feathery) - segments with whorls of long hairs Male
 Antenae

Bipectinate (double comb-like) – all segments of both sides of the antenna are with
long lateral processes) Atlas moth
Adult silkworm moth
Geniculate (elbowed) - first segment long, following segments small and going off at
an angle to the first Weevils and Ants
Aristate (pouch-like with usually dorsal bristle) - last segment usually enlarged and
bearing a conspicuous arista Houseflies
Syrphid flies
Stylate the last segment bearing an elongate terminal finger-like process called style
Robber fly
Mouthparts

Mouthparts of insects are one of the most distinguishing

characteristics of insect species which suggest their feeding
habits. In all insects, the mouthparts have evolved from a basic or
primitive type (chewing type) as demonstrated by the
grasshopper.
The insect generalized (chewing) mouthparts consists of
component parts surrounding a mouth opening or oral cavity.
These include: a labrum (upper lip), a pair of chewing mandibles
(jaws), a pair of maxillae (second jaws), and a labium (lower
lip). In addition, a central tongue-like hypopharynx drops from the
membranous floor of the cranium, behind the mouth, and bears
the opening of the salivary ducts.
Mouth Parts
The general description of the structures is based on the mouthparts that
are adapted for biting and chewing.
Labrum: movable plate attached to the lower margin of the clypeus with
its outer surface generally strongly sclerotized and its distal margin
sharply defined. 12

Epipharynx: interior or ventral surface of the labrum, membranous with

tactile hairs and taste organs.
Mandibles: a pair of strongly sclerotized, unsegmented jaws located
immediately posterior to the labrum. The mandibles move sideways and
are operated by the most powerful muscles in the head. The mandibles
are the principal feeding organs, being used primitively to bite off and
chew food.
Mouth Parts

Maxillae: paired segmented structures, lying posteroventral to

the mandibles and antero-dorsal to the labium. The basal
segment, the cardo, is attached to the head proximally and to a
longer 2nd segment, the stipes, distally. The stipes bear two
lobes, the lateral galea and the mesal lacinia. Attached laterally
to the distal part of the stipes are the usually 1–7 segmented
maxillary palps or palpus. Sometimes, the galea is 2-segmented
and the lacinia may be spined or toothed on its mesal border.
The maxillae serve as accessory jaws. The laciniae help to hold
the food when the mandibles are extended and also assist in
mastication. The galea and palp assist in selecting the food by
touch and taste
MOUTH PARTS
Labium: consists of the fused 2nd maxillae. It is
attached to the ventral surface of the cranium,
bilaterally symmetrical and divided into the
postmentum proximally; prementum more distally; 2
distal processes articulated to the prementum on each
side, the glossa mesally and paraglossa laterally; and
a pair of 1 – 4 segmented labial palps arising from a
lateral part of the prementum which is sometimes
differentiated as the palpiger. When the prementum is
divided transversely into 2 parts, the distal portion
bearing the glossae and paraglossae is known as the
ligula.
Mouth Parts

Hypopharynx: median, unpaired, tongue-like organ

projecting forward from the back of the pre-oral cavity
and dividing it into a dorsal cibarium serving as a
food pouch, and a ventral salivarium where the
salivary ducts open. The primitive hypopharynx has
an elaborate complement of sclerites and bear a pair
of lateral lobes called superlinguae.
Mouth Parts

The mouthparts in insects are variously modified. As a

modification of the chewing type of mouthparts, insects
have types that include piercing-sucking, rasping-
sucking, siphoning, sponging and chewing lapping. The
type of mouthparts of an insect defines its feeding
routine and the type of damage it inflicts on its host.
Piercing-sucking mouthparts
The mouthparts are modified to pierce the epidermis of
plants or the skin of animals and to suck up sap or blood.
This type is characterized by the presence of a tubular, usually
jointed beak enclosing several needle-like stylets.
In plant feeders such as the aphids and whiteflies
(Homoptera), the piercing-sucking needle is formed from 4-hair-
like stylets fitted closely together. The outer stylets are derived
from mandibles and the inner ones from the maxillae. The
maxillary stylets are double-grooved on the inner side. When
held together, they form 2 channels. One of the channels serves
as passage of saliva into the plant to facilitate food flow and
digestion. The other channel is used for the uptake of plant
juices. The labium forms a protective sheath for the stylets.
Piercing-sucking mouthparts
In blood-feeding insects like mosquitoes (Diptera) there
are 6 stylets. The stylets
are formed from the mandibles and maxillae and an additional
pair is modified from
the hypopharynx and labrum-epipharynx which forms a food
channel. The stylets
are enclosed by a protective sheath formed from an elongated
labium. The back of the food channel is closed by the
hypopharynx with its salivary duct carrying saliva which
contains enzymes and anticoagulants that reduce blood clotting in
the host and improve
and improve the flow of blood into the mosquito. The maxillary
and mandibular stylets work together as a needle to penetrate the
host skin.
Rasping-sucking mouthparts
Characterized as a short, stout, assymetrical
conical structure located ventrally at the rear of the
head
Primitive form of the piercing-sucking type, found in
thrips (Thysanoptera)
Mouthparts have a cone-shaped beak formed
from the clypeus, labrum, parts of the maxillae and the
labium. The beak contains the maxillae, hypopharynx
and the left mandible which together form a stylet.
The thrips use the beak to make superficial wounds on
the host tissues and take up liquid food through the
stylet.
Siphoning mouthparts

Highly specialized type, modified for the uptake of flower

nectar and other liquids
Found in practically all adult moths and butterflies (Lepidoptera)
The galea of the maxillae are greatly elongated and joined to form a
slender hollow tube called proboscis through which food passes
and held in coiled-spring fashion when not in use. The proboscis is
not capable of piercing tissues except in rare instances.
Feeding is accomplished by uncoiling the tube and projecting its tip
into exposed liquid such as nectar and then sucking up through the
food channel running full length
through the proboscis.
Sponging mouthparts

Highly specialized structures found in common

housefly .The mandibles and the maxillae are
nonfunctional and the remaining parts form a
proboscis whose end is expanded into a fleshy
lobe with a series of furrows or tiny
channels called labella.
Liquid food is “mopped up” by the capillary action
of the fleshy lobe acting like a sponge.
If the food is not liquid, salivary secretions through
the mouthparts make it so.
Chewing -lapping mouthparts

Found bees and wasps ((Hymenoptera)

The mandibles and the labrum are similar to the
chewing type and are used for grasping prey, molding
wax and manipulating nest materials.
The maxillae and the labium developed are developed
into a series of flattened elongated structure forming a
sort of a lapping tongue through which saliva is
discharged and nectar is drawn up as the bee probe
deep into the blossoms.
Found in bees and wasps (Hymenoptera)
 The Insect Thorax

The second (middle) tagma of an insect's body; body region between

head & abdomen .Almost exclusively adapted for locomotion -- contains
three pairs of walking legs and, in many adult insects, one or two pairs of
wings; Main engine room of the insect; Legs and wings are attached.
Made up of a series of concave (upper) and convex (lower) integumental
plates (Nota/notum) and the whole being held together by a tough yet
stretchable membrane (Pleura/pleuron) Composed of 3 segments,
prothorax, mesothorax, metathorax; the fore-legs are located on the
prothorax, mid-legs and the forewings on the mesothorax, hind legs
and hind wings on the metathorax. Each thoracic segment consists of
the following:
Tergum—notum (located dorsally) Sternum- ventral plate joined by
anterior and posterior bands of the pleura (located ventrally)
Pleuron—sclerite which become enlarged to form a lateral plate; two
sclerites: an anterior episternum and a posterior epimeron
Insect Legs
Insects have three pairs of walking legs -- one pair on each thoracic
segment. Each leg contains five structural components (segments) that
articulate with one another by means of hinge joints. Typically, the legs of
insects are sclerotized and divided into six segments.
1. Coxa- most basal aspect of the insect leg and articulates with the
sternites;
2. Trochanter-usually small and serves as a joint between the coxa and
the femur;
3. Femur- usually long and stouter than the other segments and contains
the main muscles used in running, jumping and digging;
4. Tibia—generally long serving to increase the length of the leg, as well
as adding an extra joint and thus extra flexibility the underside of the
tarsal segments may possess pads;
5. Tarsus- series of small subdivisions beyond the tibia; and
6. Pretarsus – consists of claws and pad-like or seta-like structure at the
apex
Insect Legs

Between the claws may be found a special pad known as

arolium which acts using suction developed by large
numbers of minute tubular hairs to help hold the insect to
smooth substrate.
The term pretarsus refers to the terminal segment of the
tarsus and any other structures attached to it, including:
a. ungues -- a pair of claws b. arolium – a lobe or adhesive
pad between the claws c. empodium -- a large bristle (or
lobe) between the claws d. pulvilli -- a pair of adhesive pads
at the base of the claws
Insect Legs

Normally, all three pairs of legs are used for

running and walking. The middle legs usually
remain relatively simple in structure but the fore
and hind legs may become extremely modified
and specialized to fit the mode of life of the insect.
These leg adaptations and modifications made
them more adapted to their environments.
 Leg Modifications and Adaptations

Type Common Term Example Diagram

Ambulatorial Walking/
running Cockroach
Saltatorial Jumping Grasshoppers with enlarged
femur

Raptorial Grasping Praying mantis with

sharp opposing spurs and spines
Leg Modifications and Adaptations

Natatorial Swimming Diving beetle with long

brushes of hair and flattened parts
Leg Modifications and Adaptations

Fossorial Digging Mole cricket with

strong scraper-like parts

Clasping Lice with well-developed claws on

the prothoracic leg
Leg Modifications and Adaptations

Assembling Pollen-gathering hind tibiae with hairs

(pollen basket or corbicula) Well-developed and
hairy pollen basket of honeybees where the pollen
adhere to
Insect Wings

The wings are lateral outgrowths of the body wall

attached dorso-ventrally in the mesothorax and
metathorax. A typical insect wing is membranous
with sclerotized veins for flight. It consists of
double layer of extremely thin cuticle which
interspersed with hollow veins filled with either air
or blood.
Insect Wings
Insects are the only invertebrates that can fly. Their wings develop as
evaginations of the exoskeleton during morphogenesis but they become
fully functional only upon adulthood.
Wing venation is commonly-used as taxonomic character, especially at the
family and species level. Adult insects have one or two pairs of wings; some
have none. Insects have evolved many variations of the wing. Wing shape,
texture, and venation are quite distinctive among the insect taxa and are
highly useful as aides for identification.
The veins of the wings are extensions of the body's circulatory system.
They are filled with hemolymph and contain a tracheal tube and a nerve. In
membranous wings, the veins provide strength and reinforcement during
flight.
Insect Wings

Wings serve not only as organs of flight, but also

may be adapted variously as:
protective covers (Coleoptera and Dermaptera)
thermal collectors (Lepidoptera)
gyroscopic stabilizers (Diptera)
sound producers (Orthoptera)
visual cues for species recognition and sexual
contact (Lepidoptera)
Types of insect wings

Type Description (Example) Picture

Elytra Hard, sclerotized front wings that serve as
protective covers for membranous hind wings (beetles:
Coleoptera

Hemelytra Front wings leathery or

parchment-like at the base and membranous
near the tip (true bugs: Hemiptera
 Types of insect wings

Tegmina Front wings are completely leathery or

parchment-like in texture (grasshoppers: Orthoptera

Haltere Small, club-like hind wings that

serve as gyroscopic stabilizers during flight
(true flies: Diptera)
Types of insect wings

Fringed wings Slender front and hind

wings with long fringes of hair (thrips:
Thysanoptera

Hairy wings Front and hind wings

clothed with setae (caddisflies:
Trichoptera)
Types of insect wings

Scaly wings Front and hind wings

covered with flattened setae (scales)
(butterflies and moths: Lepidoptera

Membranous The veins of the

wings are obviously apparent
(Hymenoptera and Odonata)
Wing adaptation

Wing coupling: insects that have two pairs of

wings have special devices to keep the wings
coupled during flight
Reynaldo Juarez Canono, Ph.D.
Central Philippines State University

Thank You!