Lesson 2:

Methods of
Philosophizi
ng

By: Mrs. Estephine Joy E. Basilga

Truth and
Knowledge
⚫ Truth lies at the heart of
any inquiry. It is a fact
that has been verified.
⚫ Knowledge is simple data that
comes from the outside that
pass to our senses. It
must be truthful to gain
validity and acceptance.
Propositions
⚫ Philosophersconsider truth
as a kind of quality or
value.
⚫ Propositions are
statements about the
world or reality which
may or may not carry
truth.
What is truth and why is it
important?
⚫ Knowledge is the clear awareness
and understanding of something.
It is the product of questions that
allow for clear answers provided
by facts.
⚫ What we know is what is
observable or evident in the real
world.
⚫ Propositions which are observed
to be real or truthful are
⚫ There are statements, however,
that are not evidently or
immediately known to be true and
they are called CLAIMS. They
require further examination,
evaluation and investigation to
establish whether it is true or
false.
How do we know if
something is true?
⚫ Philosophers emphasize the
importance of belief as a
basis for determining truth.
⚫ We assume that everything we
know about this world is true but
philosophers who pondered upon
the origins of knowledge doubted
everything that there is to know
about themselves and the world.
In doing so, they were able to
better understand the means by
which humans gain knowledge
⚫ It is said that there are instances when
we have to unlearn something so that
we may learn anew. Philosophers
questioned what they knew and even
analyzed their methods of knowing
in order to understand themselves and
the world much better.
⚫ Doubt has a very important purpose in
philosophy as it drives our desire to
discover
ufficient n and e to prove
reaso evidenc
truth. Nothing thattrue unless
is taken as
indeed
there is
strue.
it
is
Something is true
if…
1. It can be justified or proven
through the use of one’s
senses.
2. It is based on facts.
3. It is a product of
agreement or consensus.
4. It can be applied in real life
(tested and verified)
 Let us Analyze…
1. It takes me 30 minutes to walk from my
home to school.
2. Living near the school is better
because we don’t have to spend much
for transportation.
3. My sister ate the last piece of pizza.
4. My sister is a selfish person because
she ate the last piece and didn’t share
it with me.
5. The police firmly pushed the suspect
to his kneed and placed him in
handcuffs.
6. The aggressive manner by which the
 COLUMN A (Facts) COLUMN B
(Opinions)
1. It takes me 30 minutes 2. Living near the school is
to walk from my home to better because we don’t
school. have to spend much for
3. My sister ate the last transportation.
4. My sister is a selfish
piece of pizza pie. person because she ate the
last piece of pizza pie and
5. The policeman firmly did not share it with me.
pushed the suspect to his 6. The aggressive manner
knees and placed him in by which the policeman
handcuffs. arrested the suspect is an
example of the brutality that
characterizes our police
force.
How can philosophy guide
us in distinguishing truth
from are comprised of
opinion?
⚫ Opinions
statements which not only give
facts but also provide
conclusions or perspectives
regarding certain situations.
They may advance a belief
about certain things or provide
explanations.
⚫ Opinions are also the bases for
making arguments and
convincing people that a
certain claim is a fact. They
⚫ Beliefsare statements that
express convictions that are
not easily and clearly
explained by facts. To judge
the truthfulness of a belief,
we must also consider things
such as the person’s
experiences and views.
⚫ Explanations are statements
that assume the claim to
be true and provide
⚫ Arguments are a series of
statements that provide reasons
to convince the reader or listener
that a claim or opinion is truthful.
⚫ They often take the form of
statements that are either claims
of facts and are phrased in such a
way that they seem reasonable.
⚫ Fallacies is an erroneous
reasoning that comes from false
premises or irrelevant
conclusion which seems to be
correct.
What should we consider when
looking at arguments or opinions?
 Arguments often take the form of
statements that are neither claims of
facts and are phrased in such a way
that they seem reasonable.
 However, a number of arguments
may be based on faulty reasoning.
 These kinds of arguments are called
FALLACIES.
 Some of these fallacies may be
intentional, as the person making the
claim is desperate to convince you
accept his or her argument.
 TYPES OF FALLACIES
1. Fallacies of Ambiguity
a. Fallacy of Amphiboly
b. Fallacy of Equivocation
c. Fallacy of Accent
d. Fallacy of Composition
e. Fallacy of Division
2. Fallacies of Relevance
a. Argumentum Ad Hominem
b. Argumentum Ad Ignorantiam
c. Argumentum Ad Verecundiam
d. Argumentum Ad Populum
e. Argumentum Ad Misericordiam
f. Argumentum Ad Baculum
g. Pluriom Interrogationum
h. Petitio Principii
i. Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc
j. Ignoratio Elinchi
 Fallacies of Ambiguity
 The fallacy of ambiguity is
committed when the meaning of
words or phrases create a different
meaning in the conclusion.
 This may happen, if the words that
are used or structurally presented in
the premise are not properly
expressed grammatically or
syntactically.
 An argument is called ambiguous
when the meaning of a certain
 Fallacies of Ambiguity
1. Fallacy of Amphiboly
 This kind of fallacy is committed
when the expressions of
statements are not properly
constructed grammatically. These
statements create problems in the
clarity of meaning for they become
open to different interpretations.
 Example: “The police shot the thief
with a gun.”
 Did the police have the gun, or did
the thief? The sentence structure is
 Fallacies of Ambiguity
2. Fallacy of Equivocation
 This fallacy of ambiguity appears when the
meaning of a particular word in a premise is
different in use as given in the other
premise. A word is ambiguous when used in
two different sense in an argument.
 Example: "A feather is light. What is light
cannot be dark. So, a feather cannot be
dark.
 Explanation: The word "light" is used in two
different ways:
 First meaning: not heavy
 Second meaning: not dark (in color or
brightness)
 Fallacies of Ambiguity
3. Fallacy of Accent
 This fallacy of ambiguity is committed due to the
different ways a word is emphasized or accented
in a premise. This misplaced emphasis causes
misinterpretation by the listener.
 Example: "I didn’t say he stole the money.“
 Depending on which word is stressed, the
sentence can mean different things:
 I didn’t say he stole the money (someone else
did).
 I didn’t say he stole the money (I implied it, or
just hinted).
 I didn’t say he stole the money (maybe I wrote
it).
 I didn’t say he stole the money (someone else
did).
 Fallacies of Ambiguity
4. Fallacy of Composition
 This fallacy is committed due to the
assumption that the whole has the
characteristics of its parts. This
happens when one transfers the
characteristics of the parts unto the
whole, by arguing that since the
part has this, the whole must
necessarily have also this.
 Example: “The GUCCI watch I have
is expensive. It means that all
GUCCI products are expensive.”
 Fallacies of Ambiguity
5. Fallacy of Division
 This fallacy is committed when one
assumes that the parts have the
characteristics of the whole. This is
the opposite of the fallacy of
composition which asserts the
whole as having the characteristics
of its parts.
 Example: “GUCCI products are very
expensive. Therefore, this watch
that I have is expensive also.
 Fallacies of Relevance

 The fallacy of relevance is

committed due to the premises that
are not significant to their
conclusion in an argument.
 This happens when premises have
no relationship to the conclusion,
therefore, this argument cannot
establish its truth.
 Fallacies of Relevance
1. Argumentum Ad Hominem
 Argument against the man,
wherein one uses an argument that
focuses on attacking the person or
the opponent in the issue rather
on the issue.
 It is known to us, as black
propaganda, character
assassination, mud slinging,
expose, bomba, mura, or
kabastosan.

 Fallacies of Relevance
2. Argumentum Ad Ignorantiam
 Argument to ignorance, because
this one argues that an argument is
wrong since it has not yet been
proven as true, or it is true since it
is not yet proven to be false.
 Example: “Of course, belief in
“Usog” is true. Nobody can prove it
otherwise.”
 Fallacies of Relevance
3. Argumentum Ad Verecundiam
 It is called the Appeal to Authority,
because this is committed when
someone, instead of defending the
issue, seeks to use the opinion or
stand of another who has a good
reputation or authority, but not on
the said issue.
 Example: “My doctor told me that I
have no cancer. Therefore, I must
be healthy.”
 Fallacies of Relevance
4. Argumentum Ad Populum
 It is called the Appeal to People, because
this is committed when one argues using
expressive language or other devices to
excite passion (enthusiasm, happiness,
anger, hate, lust of fear) of the people or
the crowd.
 Example: "Everyone on social media
says this brand of vitamin is the best, so
it must be the healthiest!“
 Explanation: Just because something is
popular or widely believed doesn't make
it true. The fallacy lies in assuming that
 Fallacies of Relevance
5. Argumentum Ad Misericordiam
 It is called the Appeal to Mercy, because this
is committed when someone instead or
proving his argument relies in soliciting the
sympathy or pity of the listener. Shedding
tears and showing sadness are examples of
this fallacy.
 Example: "Please give me a passing grade in
this class. I’ve been going through so much
lately, and if I fail, my parents will be so
disappointed.“
 Explanation: This fallacy tries to win an
argument or get a favorable outcome by
appealing to pity, rather than providing
logical reasons or evidence. In this case, the
 Fallacies of Relevance
6. Argumentum Ad Baculum
 It is called the Appeal to Force since this is
committed when one resorts to using force or
threat in trying to push others to accept the
issue. Its purpose is to scare people to accept
or to be convinced about something.
 Example: "You better agree with my idea in
the meeting, or I’ll make sure the boss hears
how uncooperative you’ve been.“
 Explanation: This fallacy uses threat or fear to
force acceptance of a conclusion, instead of
using logical reasoning or evidence. It's about
intimidation, not persuasion.
 Fallacies of Relevance
7. Pluriom Interrogationum
 It is called many or complex questions
because this is committed when an argument
demands a simple answer to a complicated
question.
 Example: “Do you agree that former
President Estrada is a popular president who
was ousted because of plunder?
 This question is complicated since it has
multiple questions the way it is expressed.
 These are the questions laid in this one
question:
a. Do you agree that former President
Estrada is a popular president?
b. Do you agree that he was ousted?
 Fallacies of Relevance

8. Petitio Principii
 It is called begging the question because
this is committed when an argument has not
reached the conclusion by presenting
questionable or weak premises. This happens
when the argument is not proving anything
about the conclusion.
 Example: “It is wrong to say that my
argument is illogical, because it is logical.”
 Example: "Reading is important because it’s
essential."
 Fallacies of Relevance
9. Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc
 A Latin phrase that means "After this,
therefore because of this.“
 This fallacy is called false cause in that this is
committed when and argument assumes that
the effect is attributed to an inadequate
cause.
 This happens when one argues that since this
event happened before the other or in the
next event, this must be the cause of that
event.
 Oftentimes, this fallacy is accompanied by
superstitions and presumptions.
 Example: “The nation rejoiced at Manny
 Fallacies of Relevance
10. Ignoratio Elinchi
 This fallacy is also known in Latin, the Non
Sequitor (it does not follow) or the argument
of ignorance of refutation or irrelevant
conclusion.
 This fallacy is committed when the conclusion is
drawn from premises which are not related to it,
that instead of proving the issue, it rather ignores,
misses the point, or evades it.
 Example: Teacher: "You need to submit your
homework on time.
 "Student: "But I always help clean the classroom
after school!“
 Explanation: The student’s response doesn’t
address the issue (late homework). Instead, they
bring up something unrelated (helping clean), which
distracts from the real point. That’s the essence of
 ACTIVITY: Determine what fallacy is
committed in the following statements or
1. arguments.
Eman is a loyal friend, therefore, his friends are
loyal.
2. Awakened by the noise, the mother pacified the
crying baby.
3. This boy must be academically excellent since his
family is known to be academically excellent.
4. Time measures events;
Time is gold;
Therefore, gold measures events.
5. Interrupted with many questions, the media men
asked President Gloria Arroyo about the Garci-tape
issue.
6. “We should follow him even he is wrong, because if
we don’t we will lose our job”
7. A suitor to a girl: “Please marry me. If you won’t. my
heart will break. Life is meaningless without you.”
9. “Parang may isang anghel sa aking labi na
nakalutang sa ulap at nangingiliti. ‘Yong alat at asim
ng buhay ay tulad ng hain ni Inay, suspetsa ko
buong mundo’y magiging mapayapa at masaya.”
10. “Student A: “I think we should recycle more to help
the environment”
“Student B: “Why should we listen to you? You failed
our science class.”
11. “Population control is wrong science, therefore,
population is the cause of poverty”.
12. “Gov. Cardo won the election because before the
election he visited the Quiapo church”.
13. As a follower of the church teaching, do you believe
that taking pills is a form of abortion that is sinful?
14. “If you will close this prostitution den, these
prostitutes will suffer hunger.
15. "This new energy drink must be safe and healthy —
a famous actor drinks it every day!"
 ⚫ Biases are the personal views of
the person presenting it. They are
not necessarily errors in
reasoning, but refer to tendencies
or influences which affect the
views of people.
Correspondence
BIAS Tendency to judge a
CHARACTERISTICS The soldiers
EXAMPLE who
bias person’s personality fought in the war are
(Fundamental by his/her actions all bloodthirsty
attribution error) without regard for murderers.
external factors or
Confirmation bias situations
the tendency to look for How can I accept his
and accept information view that there is no
in a way that confirms God? I am a Christian!
one's own beliefs and
reject ideas that go
against it
 BIAS CHARACTERISTICS EXAMPLE

Conflict of interest A person or group is As the daughter of the

connected to or has a accused, I believe that I
vested interest in the have the right to express
issue my opinion on the issue of
his alleged corrupt
practices.
Cultural bias Analyzing an event I do not agree with this
or issue based on Western practice of placing
one’s cultural the elderly in retirement
standards homes.
We Filipinos take care of
our family members.
Framing Focusing on a certain Preliminary evidence has
aspect of a problem still not pointed out the
while ignoring other actual cause of the plane
aspects crash, but investigators
are currently focusing on
the possibility of pilot
error.
Hindsight Is when, after an event When you put a glass on
(knew-it-all-along occurs, we feel we the edge of a table and you