MODULE 2
Mechanical Modification / Densification Techniques
• Densification – Compaction - one of the most effective and commonly
used
means of improving soil characteristics
• Principle:- The strength and stiffness of the soil is higher when the
particles are packed in a dense configuration than they are packed loosely.
• In-situ densification
• Surface compaction - effective only to about 2 m below the surface
• Dynamic deep compaction - for soils deeper than that which can be compacted
from the surface
• Best method for most granular type of soils
Why Compaction?
• Soil in a loose state - low shear strength
• Making it denser :
1. Increases the shear strength -> increases bearing capacity
2. Decrease future settlements
3. Decrease permeability
4. Slope stability can be improved
5. Reduces liquefaction potential
What is compaction?
• A simple ground improvement technique, where the soil is densified
through external compactive effort.
• Artificial process
• Densified by removing air voids (in unsaturated soils), through
mechanical means (with little or no reduction in the water content)
• Soil grains get rearranged more closely => Increase in density and a
consequent decrease in void ratio
Applications:-
• Various types of earth construction – man-placed fill to improve the
properties of the soil
• Sub grade material for roads, airports
• Fills of dams
• Earth Embankments
• Under shallow foundations.
• Backfill of retaining walls
Laboratory Compaction
• Standard laboratory compaction test -commonly called the Proctor
test.
• Aim of the laboratory tests - to simulate the field compaction
conditions.
• Purpose of laboratory compaction test is to determine the proper
amount of mixing water to use when compacting the soil in the field
and the resulting degree of denseness which can be expected from
compaction at this optimum water content
• Laboratory compaction test => dry density - moisture content
relationship of a soil.
Standard Proctor Test (IS 2720
part 7)
• Originally developed to simulate
field compaction in the lab, for
small and medium load.
• Standard Proctor Mould: 944 cc
• Hammer: 2.6kg
• Drop Height = 310mm
• No. of Soil Layers = 3
• No. of Blows = 25 per layer
• Energy - (592 kJ/m3)
Modified Proctor Test (IS 2720
part 8)
• Developed to simulate larger
compaction effort for more serious
loads and bigger equipment
• Modified Proctor mould: 944 cc
• Hammer: 4.9 kg
• Drop height = 450 mm
• No. of soil layers = 5
• No. of blows = 25 per layer
• Energy - (2700 kJ/m3 - 4.56 times)
Compaction Curve
• Compaction curve is Plotted between water content on X axis and dry
density on Y axis.
• The water content corresponding to maximum dry density is known as
optimum moisture content(OMC).
Note:
• The dry density initially increases with increase in water content till the maximum
dry density (ρdmax ) is attained.
• With further increase in water content dry density decreases.
• At water content lower than optimum, the soil is rather stiff and has lots of void
spaces, therefore density is low.
• As the water content is increased, the soil particles get lubricated and slip over
each other and moved to densely packed positions and dry density increased.
• At water content more than optimum, the additional water reduces the dry
density, as it occupies the space that might have been occupied by the soil
particles.
• For a given water content, theoretical maximum density, (ρ d) theomax is
obtained corresponding to the condition when there are no air voids (ie
S=100%)
• Theoretical maximum dry density is also known as saturated dry density,
(ρd)sat.
Some Definitions…
density (𝜌𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥)
• The peak point of the compaction curve -Point with the maximum dry
• Corresponding water content known as the optimum water content
(also known as the optimum moisture content, OMC).
• The maximum dry density is only a maximum for a specific
compactive effort and method of compaction. This does not necessarily
reflect the maximum dry density that can be obtained in the field.
• Line of optimums- A line drawn through the peak points of several
compaction curves at different compactive efforts for the same soil.
Almost parallel to a 100 % S curve
1. Dry side of optimum (Below omc ):
As the water content increases, the particles
develop larger and larger water films around
them, which tend to “lubricate” the particles
and make them easier to be moved about and
reoriented into a denser configuration.
2. Optimum moisture content(At omc):
The density is at the maximum, and it does not
increase any further.
3. Wet side of optimum (Above omc):
mould, and since 𝜌𝑤 << 𝜌𝑠, the dry density
Water starts to replace soil particles in the
starts to decrease
Factors affecting Degree of
compaction
• Water content
• Amount of compaction
• Type of soil
• Method of compaction
• Presence of admixture
1. Water content:
• Initially the dry density increases with water content. Beyond a certain
limit the dry density decreases
• Initially at lower water content, soil is stiff. As the water content increases
the soil get lubricated.
• Hence on compaction the soil particles slide over the other and achieve
most dense state increasing the density of soil.
• But beyond optimum, water takes up the spaces that would have been
occupied by the solid particles. Hence density decreases.
2. Compaction effort: As the amount of compaction (or number of blow)
increases, the dry density also increases.
3. Type of soil: Coarse grained soil attain high dry density at low OMC than
that of fine grained soil
• Fine grained soil needs more water to reach optimum.
• Coarse grained soil needs less water to reach optimum
[Link] of compaction:
• The soils in the fields are compacted using different methods. The density
achieved also depends on the methods adopted.
5. Admixtures:
• The compaction of a soil can be improved by adding some admixtures. The
commonly using admixtures are lime, cement and bitumen
EFFECT OF COMPACTION ON
PROPERTIES OF SOIL
Field Compaction
• Compacted in successive layers
• Compaction achieved - depends on the thickness of lift (or layer), the type of
roller, the no. of passes of the roller, and the intensity of pressure on the soil.
• Selection of equipment - depends on the soil type
• Different types of roller
1. Smooth-wheel roller
2. Vibratory roller
3. Pneumatic rubber tired roller
4. Sheepfoot roller
Placement water content
• The water content applied in the field for compaction is called
placement water content
• It may be different from OMC obtained in the lab.
• To avoid large swelling, soils are compacted with water content more
than the OMC
• To obtain more shear strength, soil is compacted with water content
less than the OMC
Relative compaction
• The maximum dry density obtained in the field may be
different from maximum dry density obtained in the lab –
• The ratio of dry density in the field to the maximum density
obtained in the lab is known as the Relative Compaction
• For cohesive soil, the dry density of the order of 95% of the
max. dry density of standard proctor test can be achieved
using a sheep foot roller or a pneumatic tyred roller
Compaction control
• It is necessary to check the density and water content in the
field to achieve effective compaction
• Compaction control is done by measuring the dry density
and water content of the compacted soil in the field
1. Control of Density : Dry density in the field are measured by
core cutter method or sand replacement method
[Link] of Water content : Water content in the field is
measured by calcium carbide method, alcohol method, sand bath
method and Proctor needle method
Compaction control by Proctor needle method:
• Used to measure the water content in the field indirectly
• Proctor’s needle consists of a rod attached to a spring-loaded
plunger. The stem of plunger is marked to read the resistance
recorded during the test.
• The needle shank has graduations to indicate the depth of
penetration
• Varying cross sections of needle points are available.
• The needle is penetrated into the soil after the soil has been
compacted at a given water content in the compaction test in the
laboratory
• The penetration force is read on stem at top
• The force required for penetration depends upon the water content
• A calibration curve is prepared between water content and
penetration resistance
• Water content is determined from the calibration curve
corresponding to the penetration resistance of the compacted soil in
the field
Deep Compaction and
Objectives
Deep compaction techniques are required when in–situ soil extending to
large depths does not meet the requirements of performance criteria
specified for the expected loading and environmental conditions.
• The following are the techniques applied in densification of deep soil
deposits
1. Dynamic Compaction
2. Vibro-Compaction
3. Compaction Grouting
4. Pre-fabricated Vertical Drains
5. Blast densification
Deep Compaction Techniques
1. Dynamic Compaction/ Heavy Tamping
• This technique is also called as dynamic consolidation.
• This technique basically utilizes the vibration and shocks caused by
dropping an heavy weight and then densification takes place by
displacement of soil grains.