PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION
Quantitative
Research
Research could be
Qualitative
Research
Qualitative research explores attitudes,
behaviors and experiences using such
methods as interviews, focus group
discussions or observations.
Researchers can observe in two ways:
(Dawson: 2002, P.32)
1. Direct Observation and, 2. Participant
Observation
Direct observation: - is used in the areas
of health and psychology through
involving the observation of a ‘subject’
(participant) often using technology as
video camera or medical equipment
For example, observe family conversation to
understand family relationships by
psychologists, or examine the patient using
spatula by the physician.
Participant observation: - the researcher
observes by making himself, more or less,
a member of the group he is observing so
that he can experience what the members
of the group experience.
In this case, the researcher becomes
much more involved in the lives of
the people being observed in
conducting the research.
Itis popular amongst anthropologists and
sociologists who wish to study and
understand another community, culture or
context.
Researchers do this by immersing
themselves within that culture, which may
take months or years, depending on the
creation and build up a lasting and
trusting relationship with those people
who are being studied.
Through participation within their chosen
culture and cautious observation
researchers aspire to achieve a deeper
understanding into the behavior,
motivation and attitudes of the people
under study.
Merits and demerits of
participant observation
Merits
The researcher is enabled to record the
natural behavior of the group.
The researcher can even gather information
which could not easily be obtained if he
observes in a disinterested fashion.
The researcher can even verify the truth of
statements made by informants in the
context of a questionnaire or a schedule.
Demerits:
the observer may lose the objectivity to
the extent he participates emotionally;
the problem of observation-control is not
solved;
it may narrow-down the researcher’s
range of experience
Participant observation enables the
researcher to gain insight into behavior
through direct experiences. The observer
has to remain neutral while at the same
time being closely involved with those
being studied
There are overt (open) and covert (secret)
participant observations. If the
observation is going to be done overtly,
then the researcher will need to inform the
subjects of the research of his/ her identity
However, if it is to be done covertly, the
researcher will need to observe under
some sort of guise. Usually done by
journalists. Covert observation can
hamper the research by making it
impossible to ask certain questions or to
appear to curious.
In contrast, the overt observer is expected
to ask questions and exhibit curiosity;
indeed they might find themselves being
sought out and told things that the
believer want to share with stranger who
is not part of the community.(Chap.3:
P.134)
As a research method, covert
participant observervation is criticized
when researchers enter into the
organizations and participate into their
activities without introducing who they
are, what they do and what is expected of
the participant and conduct the research
secretly
In an overt participant observation,
where everyone knows who the researcher
is and what she/he is doing, which can be
a valuable method for qualitative inquiry.
In sociological research, participant
observation or fieldwork has been a
widely and successfully used approach.
The researchers lived with the peoples
they studied, learned their language and
cultures and provided fascinating
accounts of such societies. (Marsh and
Keating: 2006, P.115)
Advantages and disadvantages of an
overt participant observation as stated
by Venkatesh are;
1. Access- If the researcher used an overt
participant observation, and then the
people he was observing knew as he was
engaged in the study, which in turn create
access easier. The ethnic background also
matters
2. Recording Data- the other advantages of
overt participant observation is the ability
to conduct interviews, ask questions and
openly record data;
3. Validity- Personal involvement and
direct experience with subject of the
study, enables the researcher to gain
valuable insights into the meanings,
motivations and relationships within the
group;
4. Depth and Detail- a substantial amount of
time spent with the research subjects
enable to generate depth of data.
5. Going Native- the method makes easier
for the researcher to separate the roles of
the participant and the observer and;
6. The Observer Effect- the frequent
criticism of overt participant observation
is that, the observer’s presence changes
the way people behave initially.
(Venkatesh:2008, p 2-7)
Participant observation can be viewed
both as a method and methodology
depending on the circumstances
(Dawson: 2002, P.32)
Participant observation is used when
a researcher wants to immerse
himself in a specific culture to gain a
deeper understanding (Ibid, p.37).
How to carry out Participant
Observation
As clearly stated by Dawson, participant
observation can be carried out within any
community, culture or context which is
different to the usual community and/or
culture of the researcher
It may be carried out within a remote tribe
or in hospitals, factories, schools, prisons
and so on, within your own country.
The researcher participates in the
community while observing others within
that community, and as such she/he must
be a researcher 24 hours a day.(Dawson:
2002
Major Issues to be considered to carry out
participant observation are: (Dawson:
2002, P, 101-107)
1. GAINING ACCESS
Participant observation, cannot work
unless you’re able to get access to
communicate the community that you
wish to study.
The level of negotiation required will
depend upon the community, culture or
context
If you do expect to face difficulties to get
access to the community:
To be friend of a member of that
community who could act as a gatekeeper
and help you to get to know other people.
Spend some time building up trust
before you can expect someone to
introduce you into their community
If it is not possible to be friend of a
member of the community, you may have
to approach the person or committee in
charge, firstly by letter and then in person.
You have to be persuasive, first
impressions are important and you need to
make sure that you dress and act
appropriately within the community
You must not appear as a threat, some
people will be suspicious of the motives
of a researcher, especially if they’re not
familiar with the research process.
In the early stages it is better to
answer any questions or suspicions
directly and honestly rather than try
to avoid them or shrug them off.
2. ETHICS
Because of the nature of participant
observation, there tends to be more issues
involving ethics and morals to consider
As you intend to become part of a
specific group, will you be expected to
undertake anything illegal?
E.g. with research into drug use or crime
syndicates where people may not trust
you until you become one of them and
join in their activities
Would you be prepared to do this and put
up with any consequences which could
arise as a result of your activities?
If the group is suspicious, do you intend
to be completely honest about who you
are and what you’re doing?
Are you prepared to lie if it means you
can gain access?
How would you deal with any problems which
may arise as a consequence of your deception?
What if your participation within a group causes
problems, anxiety or argument amongst other
members?
Would you know how to deal with the situation?
Would you be prepared to withdraw and ruin all
your hard work for the sake of your informants?
PERSONALCONSIDERATIONS
WHEN ENTERING THE FIELD
Some people will not accept you.
Are you prepared for rejection
and handle it when it happens?
Are you able to banish rejection
anxieties from the outset?
Are you prepared to spend many
months studying others and not
indulging in talk about yourself?
Some researchers overcome this
problem by making sure that
they have someone outside the
community who they can talk to
if they need to.
◦ Will your contact be traumatic or
upsetting? If so, can you handle this?
If you’re going to come
across people with very
different social and political
beliefs, can you remain
neutral and keep your
opinions to yourself?
Some researchers may try
arguing their point in the hope
that they will get more
information and it will deepen
their understanding.
However, you must be careful not
to compromise your position.
◦ Are you prepared for the emergence
of as yet unconscious emotional
factors?
You may find out things about
yourself which you do not like,
especially in terms of your own
prejudices.
◦Are you prepared to be used as
a scapegoat if things go wrong
within the community under
study?
Often it is easier for the
community to blame an outsider
and many researchers are happy
to go along with this because
they know they will be leaving
the community at some point.
◦ Can you handle the feelings of guilt
which may arise as a result of the
roles you’ve got to play?
◦ Are you prepared to pretend to have
feelings which may not be real?
Some researchers would argue
that you should not do this
because it is being dishonest. The
level to which you are prepared
to do this has to be your own
choice.
◦ Are you aware of your own likes and
dislikes?
◦ Can you put stereotypes and
prejudices aside?
3. COLLECTING AND ANALYSING
INFORMATION
At the beginning of a participant observation study,
it is hard to understand what everything means.
At first something may appear very significant, but
later it might become a minor detail.
However, you will not know this until you have
started to analyze what is going on
So it is important from the outset to
start taking copious notes.
You need to have a good memory as in
many situations it is not possible to take
notes at the time.
You need to have a notepad with you at all
times so that you can write down your
thoughts as soon as possible after the
encounter.
All researchers ask questions. However,
at the beginning of a participant
observation study, it is better to seek
information by not asking questions.
Because it is hard for you to know what to
ask at this stage. Instead, you will find that
people come to you and ask questions.
This is valuable information, can tell you a
lot about those people. So all questions
should be noted and analyzed.
Field notes
Field notes are your main way of
recording data.
These might be:
Practical details about events, times, dates
and places.
Or methodological notes concerning your
role, your influence on the encounter,
your relationship with the informants,
sampling procedures and so on.
As time moves on your notes will be to
do with a preliminary analysis and the
forming of hypotheses which you can go
on to check out with your informants.
Also, as your research progresses you will
start to code and classify your notes
Taking notes is a personal process that
needs to find a method which will suit
you.
Many researchers develop their own form of
shorthand. If you do this, keep it simple to
understand the shorthand you used at the
beginning after a long period of time.
Most researchers keep a day-to-day diary in
addition to all the other field notes.
You will also need to keep all transcripts
of interviews, photographs, maps, tapes,
video recordings, diagrams and plans
Everything needs to be recorded and
stored systematically. Good organizational
skills are important if you wish to
undertake participant observation.
Most of your analysis takes place in the
field so that you can cross check and
verify your hypotheses.
At this stage, key informants will be able to
help you with this process.
They will tell you if you’re on the wrong
track.
4. FIELD WITHDROWAL
When you have been immersed in a
particular culture for a long period of
time, it can be hard to break away.
Some researchers have found that they do
not want to break away, although this only
happens rarely.
However, you have remained connected
to your role as researcher, you know
when to break away, write up your results
and pass on what you have learnt.
It is important to leave your
community on good terms
Many researchers find that it is helpful to
stay in touch with their contacts – these
people will want to see what is written
about them.
◦ They will be interested and may still
have comments to make.
◦You may also wish to return to your
community several years later and
conduct a follow-up study.
Finally, you must make sure that you try
not to do anything which will give
researchers a bad name and cause
problems for other researchers who may
wish to follow in your footsteps
Conclusion
Participant observation can particularly be
useful in the study of unusual and deviant
behaviors, which by its very nature, are
liable to be secretive and/or illegal and are
often difficult to study by conventional
means.
However, because of the difficulties
involved in gaining access and trust,
participant observation is a time –
consuming and therefore is an expensive
method of research.