THEORIES

OF
DEVELOPMENT
Shefeena Jacob,
2nd Sem, MSc .Clinical Psychology,
Dept. of Psychiatry,
GMCH
C/P : Dr. Shikha Sharma
 DEVELOPMENT
Development is the series of age-related changes
that happen over the course of a life span


 Introduction to life –span development

Basic Terms

Development: The progressive and continuous

change in an organism from birth to death.

Developmental Psychology: Studies of pre and

post natal growth, maturation of behavior, and the
effects of experiences on our development.

Life span development: The field of study that

examines problems of growth, change and stability
in behaviors that occur throughout the entire life.
Life Span

Prenatal period– conception to birth

Infancy – birth to 18 – 24 months

Early childhood – 2 – 5 years

Middle and Late childhood – 6 to 11 years

Cont..
Adolescence – 10- 12 to 18 – 21 years

Early adulthood – 20s to 30s

Middle adulthood – 40s to 50s

Late adulthood – 60s – 70s to death

 Areas of life span development
Physical development: changes in the body and its
various systems

Social development: involves changes in an

individual’s relationship with other people and their
skills in interacting with other people.

Cognitive development: involves changes in an

individual’s mental ability

Emotional development: involves changes in how an

individual experiences different feeling and how these
 What are the characteristics of the life span perspective?

Multidimensional
- Biological
- Cognitive
- Socio emotional

Multidirectional
- Growth & Decline
Plastic
- Potential to change
DEVELOPMENT
 Several famous psychologists, including Erik
Erikson, Jean Piaget, Yen Vygotsky
and Lawrence Kohlberg, describe
development as a series of stages.

A stage is a period in development in which

people exhibit typical behavior patterns and
establish particular capacities
 STAGE THEORY
The various stage theories share three assumptions:

People pass through stages in a specific order, with

each stage building on capacities developed in the
previous stage.

Stages are related to age.

Development is discontinuous, with qualitatively

different capacities emerging in each stage.
Erik Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development
 Erik Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development

Erikson believed that personality development

happens over the entire course of a person’s life.

In the early 1960s, Erikson proposed a theory that

describes eight distinct stages of development.

According to Erikson, in each stage people face

new challenges, and the stage’s outcome depends
on how people handle these challenges.
Erik Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial
Development
 Erik Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development

Erikson named the stages according to these possible

outcomes:

Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust

In the first year after birth, babies depend completely on
adults for basic needs such as food, comfort, and warmth.

If the caretakers meet these needs reliably, the babies

become attached and develop a sense of security.

 Otherwise, they may develop a mistrustful, insecure

attitude.
 Erik Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development

Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Between the ages of one and three, toddlers start

to gain independence and learn skills such as toilet
training, feeding themselves, and dressing
themselves.

 Depending on how they face these challenges,

toddlers can develop a sense of autonomy or a
sense of doubt and shame about themselves
Erik Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development

Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt

Between the ages of three and six, children

must learn to control their impulses and act
in a socially responsible way.

 If they can do this effectively, children

become more self- confident. If not, they may
develop a strong sense of guilt
 Erik Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development

Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority

Between the ages of six and twelve, children

compete with peers in school and prepare to take
on adult roles.

 They end this stage with either a sense of

competence or a sense of inferiority
Erik Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development

Stage 5: Identity vs. Role Confusion

During adolescence, which is the period

between puberty and adulthood, children try
to determine their identity and their direction
in life.

Depending on their success, they either

acquire a sense of identity or remain
uncertain about their roles in life.
 Erik Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development

Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation

In young adulthood, people face the challenge of developing

intimate relationships with others.

 If they do not succeed, they may become isolated and lonely.

Stage 7: Generativity vs. Self-Absorption

As people reach middle adulthood, they work to become

productive members of society, either through parenting or
through their jobs.

If they fail, they become overly self-absorbed.

 Erik Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development
Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair

In old age, people examine their lives

They may either have a sense of contentment or be

disappointed about their lives and fearful of the
future
 Erik Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development

Erikson’s theory is useful because it addresses both

personality stability and personality change.

To some degree, personality is stable, because childhood

experiences influence people even as adults.

However, personality also changes and develops over the life

span as people face new challenges.

The problem with Erikson’s theory, as with many stage

theories of development, is that he describes only a typical
pattern.

The theory doesn’t acknowledge the many differences among

PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
 PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

While conducting intelligence tests on children, Swiss

psychologist Jean Piaget began to investigate how
children think.

According to Piaget, children’s thought processes

change as they mature physically and interact with the
world around them.

Piaget believed children develop schema, or mental

models, to represent the world.
 PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

As children learn, they expand and modify their schema

through the processes of assimilation and
accommodation.

Assimilation is the broadening of an existing schema

to include new information.

Accommodation is the modification of a schema as

new information is incorporated.

Piaget proposed that children go through four stages of

 PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Example: Suppose a young boy knows his pet

parrot is a bird. When he sees a robin outside and
calls it a bird too, he exhibits assimilation, since he
broadened his bird schema to include
characteristics of both parrots and robins. His bird
schema might be “all things that fly.” Now suppose
a bat flaps out at him one night and he shrieks,
“Bird!” If he learns it was a bat that startled him,
he’ll have to modify his bird schema to “things that
fly and have feathers.” In modifying his definition,
he enacts accommodation
 PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Piaget proposed that children go through four
stages of cognitive development
 PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Stage 1: Sensori motor Period
In this stage, which lasts from birth to roughly two years,
children learn by using their senses and moving around.

By the end of the sensori motor period, children become

capable of symbolic thought, which means they can
represent objects in terms of mental symbols.

More important, children achieve object permanence in

this stage.

 Object permanence is the ability to recognize that an

object can exist even when it’s no longer perceived or in
one’s sight
 PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Example: If a three-month-old baby sees a ball,

she’ll probably be fascinated by it. But if someone
hides the ball, the baby won’t show any interest in
looking for it. For a very young child, out of sight is
literally out of mind. When the baby is older and
has acquired object permanence, she will start to
look for things that are hidden because she will
know that things can exist even when they can’t be
seen.
 PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Stage 2: Preoperational Period
This stage lasts from about two to seven years of age.

 During this stage, children get better at symbolic

thought, but they can’t yet reason.

According to Piaget, children aren’t capable of

conservation during this stage.

Conservation is the ability to recognize that

measurable physical features of objects, such as
length, area, and volume, can be the same even when
objects appear different.
PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Example: Suppose a researcher gives a three-

year-old girl two full bottles of juice. The girl
will agree that they both contain the same
amount of juice. But if the researcher pours
the contents of one bottle into a short, fat
tumbler, the girl will then say that the bottle
has more. She doesn’t realize that the same
volume of juice is conserved in the tumbler
 PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Piaget argued that children are not capable of

conservation during the preoperational stage
because of three weaknesses in the way they think.

He called these

weaknesses centration, irreversibility,
and egocentrism:

Centration is the tendency to focus on one aspect

of a problem and ignore other key aspects.
Cont…
In the above example , the three-year-old
looks only at the higher juice level in the
bottle and ignores the fact that the bottle is
narrower than the tumbler.

 Because of centration, children in the

preoperational stage cannot carry out
hierarchical classification, which means
they can’t classify things according to more
than one level
 PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Irreversibility is the inability to mentally reverse an

operation.

In the example, the three-year-old can’t imagine pouring

the juice from the tumbler back into the bottle. If she
poured the juice back, she’d understand that the tumbler
holds the same amount of liquid as the bottle.

Egocentrism is the inability to take someone else’s point

of view.

Animism, or the belief that even inanimate objects are

living, results from egocentrism. Children assume that
since they are alive, all other things must be too.
 PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Talking Tables and Dancing Dishwashers

Animism explains the popularity of children’s
movies featuring characters such as talking
vegetables or singing candlesticks.

Young children can readily believe that objects

around them are alive, which means they can be
entertained by stories involving living objects.

Children and adolescents past the age of seven

generally lose interest in heroic toasters and prefer
stories about people
 PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Stage 3: Concrete Operational Period

From the age of seven to about eleven, children

become capable of performing mental operations or
working through problems and ideas in their minds.

 However, they can perform operations only on

tangible objects and real events.

Children also achieve conservation, reversibility,

and decentration during this stage:
 PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Reversibility is the ability to mentally reverse

actions.

Decentration is the ability to focus

simultaneously on several aspects of a problem.

Furthermore, children become less egocentric

during this stage as they start to consider
simultaneously different ways of looking at a
problem
PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Stage 4: Formal Operational Period

In this stage, which begins around eleven
years of age and continues through
adulthood,
 children become capable of applying mental
operations to abstract concepts.
They can imagine and reason about
hypothetical situations.
 From this point on, people start to think in
abstract, systematic, and logical ways.
PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
 PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Critiques of Piaget’s Theories

Although Piaget made important contributions to the

research on cognitive development, his theory has come
under attack for several reasons:

Recent research has shown that he greatly underestimated

children’s capabilities.

For example, researchers have shown that babies achieve

object permanence much sooner than Piaget said they do.

Children sometimes simultaneously develop skills that are

characteristic of more than one stage, which makes the idea
of stages seem less viable.
 PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Critiques of Piaget’s Theories

Piaget ignored cultural influences.

 Research has shown that children from different

cultures tend to go through Piaget’s stages in the
same order, but the timing and length of stages
vary from culture to culture.

Some people never develop the capacity for formal

reasoning, even as adults.
Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development
 Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development centered

on the ideas that social interaction and imaginative
play are large contributors to the process of
cognitive development in children.

 He believed that the social interactions that children

engaged in helped them to both discover and create
meaning from the things that they discover.

Specifically, he believed that some of the most

important learning a child could experience was in
the social interactions they had with a skilled tutor
that is often an adult, such as a parent or teacher.
 Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development

The child will observe the behaviors of the tutor as

well as follow the verbal instructions the tutor
provides.

The child will then emulate what they observe in

their tutor.

 The child tries to understand what they observe

and the instructions they receive by copying and
internalizing, while learning to apply them to their
own lives.
Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Vygotsky called this collaborative or cooperative

dialogue. He called the teacher or tutor in this
role the “more knowledgeable other.”

While this role typically involves adults, as

pointed out above, such as teachers, parents, or
coaches, it can also involve social interactions
with other children.

 The important part of the role is that it is

fulfilled by someone from which the child can
learn, a more knowledgeable other
 Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Zone of Proximal Development and Scaffolding

Vygotsky also proposed something called the “zone

of proximal development” and the idea of
“scaffolding” in a child’s development.

 The way this works is by recognizing that there are

some things a child cannot do independently, but
they would be able to do with the assistance of
someone else.

For example, a child may be developing the ability

to make different sounds, but cannot yet talk.
Scaffolding
Scaffolding is described as the process of
offering guidance and suggestion in relation to a
specific action or task.

During the process, children are the main

constructors of the task and adults or more highly
skilled peers offer suggestions and guidance

Scaffolding works closely with Zone of Proximal

Development.
Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development
With assistance, or scaffolding, from an adult
who begins showing them pictures and
repeating the names of the pictures, the child
will soon begin to develop words and start
communicating independently without help.

 The scaffolding helped them to develop the

skills necessary to communicate on their own.
 Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Language Development

Vygotsky was particularly interested in the role of

language in cognitive development.

Given that language is vital to human interactions,

he believed that language was the most important
tool that human could utilize.

 Language, especially in the realm of collaborative

dialogue, is the way the more knowledgeable other
communications important information to a child
 Cont….
Vygotsky believed that there are three forms of
language, as outlined below.

Social Speech

This is what Vygotsky referred to as the

external communication that people use to talk
with other people

 he believed that this form of language was

typical in children from the age of two.
Cont…
Private Speech

This is what Vygotsky referred to as the internal

communication that a person directs to
themselves

It serves an intellectual function, and it is typical

in children from the age of three.
 Cont…
For Vygotsky, private speech was an important mile
marker in a child’s cognitive development,

 because it’s the moment in a child’s development

where thoughts become connected with words, and a
child begins exhibiting verbal thinking.

Whereas social interaction is an important part of

cognitive development as a child learns from a more
knowledgeable other,

 private speech allows a child to begin the

 Cont…

Silent Inner Speech

Vygotsky believed that this is what happens when

private speech diminishes in its audibility until it
become a self-regulating function.

He believed this was typical in children from the

age of seven.
 Cont…
Vygotsky’s focus on language as a part of cognitive
development was based on the idea that at the
beginning of a child’s life, language and thought begin
as separate systems within a child’s brain.

He believed that these two systems would merge in the

child at around the age of three, and the two systems
would become interdependent.

As the two systems become interdependent, a child’s

communication can be internalized to become private
speech to the self, and this internalization of language
is an important component to a child’s cognitive
Imaginative Play and Cognitive Development

Adults may see children engaging in imaginative

play, pretending to be pirates or princesses, and
think that it’s just a fun way that children entertain
themselves.

What they may not realize, however, is the vital

role that imaginative play serves in a child’s
cognitive development.

 In fact, imaginative play involves a very complex

mental process that impacts the child’s overall life
and development.
 Cont…
Imaginative play helps children to develop
meaning and make sense of the world they live in.

It also helps them to develop their thinking skills

as well as their use of language.

With imaginative play, children often engage in

pretend role-playing activities.

This often involves children creating a story as

well the characters involved in the story.
 Cont…
For example, a child might role-play with another child by
pretending they’re a superhero or superheroes in pursuit
of defeating a villain.

This involves dialogues that they develop with the other

children

It also involves exercising problem solving skills as they

work out the plot of their story, what their characters are
going to do and how they will defeat the villain in their
story.

The dialogues they create help them to develop their

language as they imitate things that they have observed in
 Cont….
Even when children engage in imaginative play
by themselves, they engage in dialogues with
themselves that help them to develop language
and problem solving skills.

 Vygotsky believed that the external language

that children hear and imitate gets internalized
during imaginative play.
 Applying Vygotsky’s Theory

The most important application an educator can

put into place from Vygotsky’s theory is his
concepts of the zone of proximal development and
scaffolding.

 This allows teachers to realize what a child can do

if they only had assistance.

They can then provide the necessary scaffolding to

help a child develop the skill on their own.
Cont…

For younger children in particular, educators

need to focus on providing an environment
that encourages the children to engage in
imaginative play,

 because the role-playing they engage in will

help them to develop language and thinking
 Cont….

Cognitive development involves the active

internalization of problem – solving processes as a
result of mutual interaction between children and
others.

Children learns how to think through their

interactions with others

Where Piaget saw the child as a scientist,

Vygotsky saw the child as an apprentice.
KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Moral Development
Moral development is the gradual
development of an individuals concept of
right or wrong – conscious, religious values,
social attitudes and certain behavior.
 KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Lawrence Kohlberg focused on moral reasoning,

or why people think the way they do about right
and wrong.

Influenced by Piaget, who believed that moral

reasoning depends on the level of cognitive
development.

Kohlberg proposed that people pass through three

levels of moral development


 KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Level 1 - The Pre conventional morality

Stage 1 - Punishment obedience orientation
Stage 2 - Instrument relativist orientation

Level 2 - The conventional morality

Stage 3 - Good boy - Nice girl orientation
Stage 4 - Law and Order orientation

Level 3 - The Post – conventional morality

Stage 5 - Social contract orientation
Stage 6 - Universal ethical principle orientation.
 KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Level 1: The Pre conventional Level

At this level, children ascribe great importance to

the authority of adults.

For children in the first stage of this level, an

action is wrong if it’s punished, whereas in the
second stage, an action is right if it’s rewarded.
 KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Level 2: The Conventional Level

In the next level, children value rules, which they

follow in order to get approval from others.

In the first stage of this level, children want the

approval only of people who are close to them.

In the second stage, children become more

concerned with the rules of the broader society.
 KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Level 3: The Post conventional Level

In the final level, people become more flexible and

consider what’s personally important to them.

In the first stage of this level, people still want to follow
society’s rules, but they don’t see those rules as
absolute.

In the second stage, people figure out right and wrong
for themselves, based on abstract ethical principles.

Only a small proportion of people reach this last stage of

KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Levels Stages of Motivation

 Pre- conventional (3 – 7  Avoid punishment,

years old) obtain rewards

 Conventional (8 -13  Belong and be

years old) accepted, obey rules
and regulations

 Pre – conventional  Make and keep

(adulthood) promises, live moral
imperatives
 KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Critiques of Kohlberg’s Theories

Critics of Kohlberg’s theory have two main concerns:

People often show the reasoning characteristic of

several different levels simultaneously.

For instance, in one situation, a person might

reason as if he is at a conventional stage, and in
another situation, he might use reasoning typical
of a post conventional stage.
Cont…
Kohlberg’s theory of moral development
favors cultures that value individualism.

 In other cultures, highly moral people may

base their reasoning on communal values
rather than abstract ethical principles
ATTACHMENT THEORY
ATTACHMENT THEORY
 Characteristics of Attachment
1. Safe Haven
Ideally, the child can rely on his caregiver for comfort at
times whenever he feels threatened, frightened or in
danger.

For example, if a child is given a toy that he doesn't like,

he'd cry and his mother would remove the toy and hug
the child so he would stop crying.

2. Secure Base
Here, the caregiver gives a good and reliable foundation
to the child as he goes on learning and sorting out things
by himself.

 For example, a child would ask questions to his mother

about why his dad got sick and can't play with him at the
3. Proximity Maintenance
This means that the child aims to explore the world
but still tries to stay close to his care giver.

For example, a teenager discusses peer problems

with his mother.

4. Separation Distress
This means that the child becomes unhappy and
sorrowful when he becomes separated from his
caregiver.

For example, an infant cries loudly when his

mother leaves for work.
OBJECT – RELATION THEORY
What is an “Object”?

 The human brain is wired to look for patterns

or categories (organizing sensations)

The first patterns that the infant discovers are:

Me – Not Me
Pleasurable – Frustrating
Male – Female
 OBJECT – RELATION THEORY

What is an “Object”?

Melanie Klein (the founder of Object Relations

Theory) said that infants internalize, or swallow
whole, into their unconscious psyche, categories or
representations of reality.
These are known as “introjects” or “objects”

These Introjects (Objects) are used as templates to

interpret other sensations or experiences in life.
(e.g. – Mother Object is used to interpret
OBJECT – RELATION THEORY
Melanie Klein’s Theory
All infants “split”
Splitting is looking at an object as either all
good or all bad based upon the present
experience of that object
 First Object is the Breast (later generalized
to the mother)
If the breast is full of yummy milk – providing
pleasure to the child – then that breast is the
“Good Breast Object”
Cont…
If the breast happens to be empty – then the
baby is
frustrated – and that breast is seen as the
“Bad Breast Object”

It is not until a child matures that they come

to see that both objects are the same thing!!
Mature people no longer see things as all
good or all bad – but see that everyone is a
mixture of good and bad
 Cont…
Rather than emphasize libido – Klein emphasized the
aggressive/death instinct of the psyche – “Thanatos”

She emphasized that a child will feel ambivalent toward a

loved object, because sometimes that object frustrates
the child

If the child experiences frustration with an object (the

empty breast, mom not getting that the diaper is wet, the
dog knocking over the toddler), the child will split that
object, seeing it as all bad in that moment.

The Aggressive instinct causes the child to “kill” that

object in fantasy. This is called the Paranoid-Schizoid
 Cont…
When the child has killed the bad object in fantasy,
the child feels instantly sad! It has just killed the
mommy that it loves.

This sad state is known as the Depressive Position

The sadness motivates the child to re-integrate the

good object back into the bad object by an act of love

“Hate/Aggression splits and Love Unites”

E.g. – my son doing “Eye Shoots” at me, and later

bringing me some dandelions he picked as a present
Donald Winnicot’s Theory of
Object Relations
Donald Winnicott’s Theory of
Object Relations
 Donald Winnicot’s Theory of
Object Relations

Winnicot did not emphasize either libido or

thanatos in his theory. Instead, he focused on the
development of the Self Object out of our
relationship with the mother.

He adopted the concept of “Mirroring” from Heinz

Kohut –that we develop our sense of self-worth
from the pleasure we see in our mother’s face
when she looks into our eyes
- As an infant, we see ourselves through our
mother’s eyes
 Winnicot’s theory of parent – infant
relationship

Described three basic elements:

- the environmental mother
- the object mother
- the psycho somatic partnership.

The environmental mother offers an ‘arms

around’ holding with in which she positions the
baby, providing a context of safety, security a sense
of well – being and growth.
 Cont….
Within this arms around envelope, the object
mother offers herself as a direct object for use by
the baby in a focused relationship in which each
incorporates the other as an internal object.

There is a transitional zone between the contextual

and focused aspects of the infant – mother
relationship
 Emotional Holding
Winnicott (1965)

Connection with child’s sense of being held during

infancy, both in caregivers arms and in a safe
environment.

- This makes possible emotional development.

The whole experience of being physically and emotionally

held by caregivers is referred to as the ‘holding
environment’

-Within this the child develops trust, learns to identify

thoughts and feelings and develops the capacity to think,
 The ‘Good Enough’ Mother

Underlying all of Winnicot’s thinking: the

foundations of psychological and emotional health
are laid down through the ordinary efforts a
caring, concerned mother (i.e.; picking up the
baby, gathering the baby, bathing and feeding)

Winnicot emphasized the warm, sensitive and

accurate ‘handling” of the infant.
 The implications of Object
Relations Theory
Sometimes we relate to others based upon prior
experience with someone else – e.g. instantly
disliking someone (because we are using an
Introject of someone else from our past)

We also have a Self Object – if we fail to love

ourselves (re-integrating our Bad Self with our
Good Self) we may develop Borderline Personality
– an unstable sense of self – seeing self as having
to be either all good (perfect), or all bad if we do
one bad thing
 Limitations
Winnicott purely studied children and their
relationships with their parents.

Focused on childhood, and not on adult life.

Living in England, and developing most of his

theories during World War 11, Winnicott developed
Euro – centric theories.

As with most psychological theories, evidence is

hard to come upon. Winnicott based his theories on
 References:
Baron, A.R. (2011); Psychology; Ed(5); Pearson
Publishers

Hurlock, E.B (2007). Child Development. Ed (6). Tata

McGraw Hill Edition, New Delhi

Munn, L.N & Fernald, S.P(1967). Introduction to

Psychology. Ed(3). Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt.
Ltd, New Delhi.

Santrock ,W.J (2011). Life Span Development.

Thank You…