2.
0 MECHANICAL TERMINOLOGY AND
BEHAVIOUR
STRESS STRAIN RELATION
When one studies the mechanical behavior of elastic bodies under load
(elasticity theory), one has to consider the following:
An elastic body subjected to stresses deforms in a reversible manner.
At each point within the body, one can identify the principal planes on
which there are only normal stresses
The normal directions on these planes are called the principal stress
directions
Simplest form of stress occurs when a direct axial load is applied to a
bar of material of a constant cross-sectional area.
Stress (σ) =
For tensile For compression
Applied stress will always produce a deformation in form of change of
length of the bar
The change in length is always described as a fraction of the original
length, known as strain.
Strain (ε) =
Hooke’s law states that for a perfect material the stress is
proportional to the strain up to the elastic limits.
Therefore
where E= Young’s Modulus
Strain ε has no unit, therefore the Young’s modulus of Elasticity E has
same unit as stress (σ)
SHEAR STRAIN AND STRESS
Shear stress is defined to be the ratio of the tangential force to the cross
sectional area of the surface upon which it acts,
strain 𝜀 is a measure of the elongation or contraction of a material in a
Strain is the measure of a material’s deformation during loading. Normal
particular direction during loading (Fig. 1a). Normal strain measurements
are required for determining the modulus of elasticity E and Poisson’s
ratio ν of a material.
Additionally, shear strain γ is an angular deformation measurement
defined as the change in a 90-degree angle at a point in the material during
loading (Fig. 1b). Shear strain measurements are used in determining the
shear modulus G.
SHEAR MODULUS (G)
It connects shear strain γ to the corresponding shear stress τ
The S.I. unit for shear modulus is Pascal (Pa)
It’s one of the several quantities of measuring the stiffness of
material
The shear modulus is concerned with the deformation of a solid when
in experiences a force parallel to one of the surfaces whiles its
opposite face experiences an opposing force e.g friction
BULK MODULUS (K)
Pressure involved in deformation of material is proportional to the
materials volume change.
Pressure P volume change Δ
where K = bulk modulus
𝐵𝑢𝑘 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 ∆𝑝
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 ( 𝐾 ) = =
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 ∆ 𝑉 / 𝑉 0
POISSON’S RATIO, V
When a material is stretched in one direction, it stretches in the other two
directions. Poisson’s ration is the negative of the ratio of the lateral or
transverse strain, to the axial strain, in tensile loading
It’s the constant that relates modulus of rigidity G, to the Young’s modulus
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ELASTIC CONSTANTS
Relationship between E, G, v
Consider a cube of material of side ‘a’ subjected to a force producing the shape
shown below;
Assuming the stains are small and angle ACB is 450
Therefore the strain on the diagonal OA
Since angle between OA and OB is very small hence OA = OB
therefore BC, is the change in the length of the diagonal OA
Thus,
This shear stress system is equivalent or can be replaced by a system
of direct stresses at 450 as shown. One set will be compressive, the
other tensile, and both will be equal in value to the applied shear
strain.
Therefore, for the direct state of stress system which applies along
the diagonals:
Equating the two strains one gets
Where
The formula is valid only within the elastic limit of a material
Relationship between E, K, and v
Consider a cube subjected to three equal stresses as shown in the
figure below
The total strain in one direction or along one edge
due to the application of hydrostatic stress or
volumetric stress is given as;
bulk/volumetric strain =
Therefore
Bulk Modulus of Elasticity (K) =
Equating the two strains we get;
Relationship between G, K, and v
From the derived equations E can be eliminated
Equating the two;
Therefore;
GENERALISED HOOKE’S LAW – DERIVATION
Consider an element on which there is only one component of normal
stress acting (say on x-axis)
Consider an element with normal y-axis stress only
Consider an element with normal z-axis stress only
If the cube is acted upon by the three normal stresses
Total strain on the x-axis,
Total strain on the y-axis,
Total strain on the y-axis,
Hence the generalized Hooke’s law becomes;
Each shear stress component produces only its corresponding shear
strain
Shear strain in x-y plane,
Therefore,
THE END
GENERALISED HOOKE’S LAW
The generalized Hooke’s Law is used to predict the deformation
caused in a given material by an arbitrary combination of stresses.
It connects the stress and strain in 3-D objects
For a 3-D state of stress, the normal strain in a given direction (such
as x) is a function of the stresses in all three orthogonal directions 1.e
x, y, and z directions.
Where E= Young’s Modulus of Elasticity
v = Poisson’s ratio
The generalized relationship for Hooke’s law for shear in the xy plane
can be given as.
The generalized Hooke’s law also reveals that strain can exist without
stress. For example, if the member is experiencing a load in the Y-
direction(which in turn causes a stress in the Y-direction), the Hooke’s
law shows that the strain in the X-direction does not equal to zero.
This is because as the material is being pulled outward in the Y-plane,
the material in the X-plane moves inward to fill the space once
occupied, just like the elastic band becomes thinner as you stretch. In
this situation, the X-plane does not have any external force acting on
them but it experiences a change in length.
In this situation one can say that strain existed without stress in the
X-plane
ISOTROPIC MATERIAL
An isotropic material has properties that are the same in all directions.
For example, the Young’s modulus of steel is the same in all directions.
There are three elastic constants: E, v, G. The relation among them is
From the relation above a material that is isotropic and elatsic can be
characterized by two independent elastic constants E and v
Stress–Strain Behavior in an Isotropic
Material
Stress-strain relationship
can be written in a
matrix as;
ANISOTROPIC MATERIAL
Anisotropic materials has material properties that are different in all
directions at a point in the material. The Young’s modulus changes
with the direction of the material.
The matrix equation for anisotropic material is;
Deformation in an Anisotropic
Material
There are five distinct elasic constants
• Two moduli of elasticity: Ex and Ey
• Two Poisson coefficients: vyx and vxy, and
• One shear modulus: Gxy.
There are only four independent elastic
constants Ex, Ey, Gxy and vyx (or vxy). The 5th
elastic constant can be obtained from the
others using symmetry relation
Comparison between
deformation of isotropic and
anisotropic plate
HOMOGENEOUS MATERIAL
A homogeneous body has properties that are the same at all points in
the body. A steel rod is an example of a homogeneous body. However,
if one heats this rod at one end, the temperature at various points on
the rod would be different. Because Young’s modulus of steel varies
with temperature, one no longer has a homogeneous body. The body
is still isotropic because the properties at a particular point are still
identical in all directions.
Most composites materials are neither isotropic or homogeneous. For
example consider epoxy reinforced with long glass fibres. The
properties on the glass fibre location are different from the properties
on the epoxy matrix location. This makes the composite material
nonhomogeneous. Also the stiffness in the direction of the fibre is
higher than in the direction perpendicular to the fibres. This makes
the material properties dependent on the direction hence anisotropic.
ORTHOTROPIC MATERIALS
An orthotropic material is a homogeneous linear elastic material
having two planes of symmetry at every point in terms of mechanical
properties, these two planes being perpendicular to each other.
Principle axes
for an
Orthotropic ply
Orthotropic axes and
arbitrary direction in the
plane of a ply
Orthotropic medium