Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer

Chapter 1

Heat transfer and thermodynamics,

Conduction heat transfer, Convective
heat transfer, Radiative heat transfer.
 Objectives
 Understand how thermodynamics and heat transfer are
related to each other,
 Distinguish thermal energy from other forms of energy,
and heat transfer from other forms of energy transfer,
 Perform general energy balances as well as surface
energy balances,
 Understand the basic mechanisms of heat transfer, which are
conduction, convection, and radiation, and Fourier's law of
heat conduction, Newton's law of cooling, and the Stefan–
Boltzmann law of radiation,
 Identify the mechanisms of heat transfer that occur
simultaneously in practice,
 Develop an awareness of the cost associated with heat
losses, and

 Solve various heat transfer problems encountered in

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 Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer
• Heat: The form of energy that can be transferred
from one system to another as a result of
temperature difference.
• Thermodynamics is concerned with the amount of
heat transfer as a system undergoes a process
from one equilibrium state to another.
• Heat Transfer deals with the determination of the
rates of
such energy transfers as well as variation of
temperature.
• The transfer of energy as heat is always from the
higher- temperature medium to the lower-
temperature one.
• Heat transfer stops when the two mediums reach
the same temperature.
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• Heat can
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 Heat Transfer
The basic requirement for heat transfer is the
presence of a temperature difference.
The second law requires that
heat be transferred in the direction
of decreasing temperature.

 The temperature difference is the driving force

for heat transfer.
 The rate of heat transfer in a certain direction
depends on the
magnitude of the temperature gradient in that
direction.
 The larger the temperature gradient, the higher
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 Application Areas of Heat Transfer

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 Application Areas of Heat
Transfer

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 Engineering Heat Transfer
Heat transfer equipment such as heat exchangers, boilers,
condensers, radiators, heaters, furnaces, refrigerators, and
solar collectors are designed primarily on the basis of heat
transfer analysis.

The heat transfer problems encountered in practice can be

considered in two groups: (1) rating and (2) sizing problems.

The rating problems deal with the determination of the heat

transfer rate
for an existing system at a specified temperature difference.

The sizing problems deal with the determination of the size of a

system in order to transfer heat at a specified rate for a
specified temperature difference.

An engineering device or process can be studied either

experimentally (testing and taking measurements) or
of Chemical (by analysisHeator
analytically
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 Heat and Other Forms of Energy
 Energy can exist in numerous forms such as:
 thermal,
 mechanical,
 kinetic,
 potential,
 electrical,
 magnetic,
 chemical, and
 nuclear.

 Their sum constitutes the total energy E (or e on a unit

mass basis) of a system.

 The sum of all microscopic forms of energy is called the

internal energy U (or u on a unit mass basis) of a system.

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  Internal energy may be viewed as the sum of the kinetic
and potential energies of the molecules.
 The kinetic energy of the molecules is called sensible heat.

 The internal energy associated with the phase of a system

is called latent heat.
 The internal energy associated with the atomic bonds in a
molecule is called chemical (or bond) energy.

 The internal energy associated with the bonds within the

nucleus of the atom itself is called nuclear energy.

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 Internal Energy and Enthalpy

 In the analysis of systems

that involve fluid flow, we
frequently encounter the
combination of properties u
and P .
 The combination is defined
as enthalpy (h =u+P ).

 The term P represents the

flow energy of the fluid
(also called the flow work).

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 Specific Heats of Gases, Liquids, and
Solids
 Specific heat is defined as the energy required to raise the
temperature of a unit mass of a substance by one degree.

 Two kinds of specific heats:

 specific heat at constant volume c and
v,
 specific heat at constant pressure c .
p

 The specific heats of a substance, in general, depend on

two independent properties such as temperature and
pressure.

 For an ideal gas, however, they depend on temperature

only.
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 Energy Transfer
 Energy can be transferred to or from a given mass by two
mechanisms:
 heat transfer, and

 work.

 The amount of heat transferred during a process is

denoted by Q.

The amount
transfer of and
rate, heatistransferred
denoted byperQ.
unit time is called
t
 heat
The total amount of heat transfer Q during Q   Qdt
a time interval t can be determined from
(J)
 The rate of heat transfer per unit area normal 0Q
to the direction of heat transfer is called heat q  (W/m2 )
flux, and the average heat flux is expressed A
as
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 The First Law of Thermodynamics
 The first law of thermodynamics states that energy can
neither be created nor destroyed during a process; it can only
change forms.
Total energy Total energy Change in the
entering the - leaving the = total energy of
system system the system
 The energy balance for any system undergoing any process can
be expressed as (in the rate form)
Ein  Eout  dEsystem dt (W)

Rate of net energy transfer Rate of change in internal

by heat, work, and mass kinetic, potential, etc., energies

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  In heat transfer problems it is convenient to write a heat
balance and to treat the conversion of nuclear, chemical,
mechanical, and electrical energies into thermal energy as
heat generation.
 The energy balance in that case can be expressed as

 (J)
Qin  Qout Egen  Ethermal ,system

Net heat Heat Change in

transfer generation thermal energy
of the system

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 Energy Balance
Closed systems Steady-Flow Systems
 Stationary closed
For system with one inlet and one exit:
system, no work:
min  mout  m (kg/s)
Q  mcv T  When kinetic and potential energies
are negligible, and there is no work
(J) interaction
Q  mh  mcpT (kJ/s)

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 Surface Energy Balance
A surface contains no volume or
mass, and thus no energy.
Therefore, a surface can be
viewed as a fictitious system
whose energy content remains
constant during a process.

This relation is valid for both

steady and transient conditions,
and the surface energy balance
does not involve heat generation
since a surface does not have a
volume.

1
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 Heat Transfer Mechanisms
 Heat can be transferred in three basic modes:

 Conduction,
 Convection,
 Radiation.

 All modes of heat transfer require the existence of

a temperature difference.
 All modes are from the high-temperature medium to a
lower- temperature one.

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 Conduction Heat Transfer
 Conduction is the transfer of energy from the more energetic
particles of a substance to the adjacent less energetic ones as a
result of interactions between the particles.

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 Conduction: Physical Mechanism

 Conduction can take place in solids, liquids, or gases

 In gases and liquids conduction is
due to the collisions and diffusion of the
molecules during their random motion.

 In solids conduction is due to the

combination of vibrations of
the molecules in a lattice and the
energy transport by free electrons.

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 Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction

 The rate of heat conduction through a medium depends on the

geometry of the medium, its thickness, and the material of the
medium, as well as the temperature difference across the medium.

(Area)(Temperature Difference)
Rate of heat conduction 
Thickness
(T1  T2 ) T dT
Q  kA  -kA = -kA (W)
x
x
dx

Fourier’s law of heat conduction

Where k, thermal conductivity of the material, a
measure of the ability of a material to conduct
heat.
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 Remarks
 Area (A) is perpendicular to the vector of heat flow; thickness (L) is parallel to the
vector of heat flow.

 First step in heat conduction problem: evaluate A and L properly.

A [m2]; T [K]; L [m]

Q [W (J/s)] Or flux, Q˙ / A [W/m2];
˙
 k [W/m.K]
 Negative sign is the sequence of fact that heat is transferred in the direction of
decreasing temperature, i.e. q(x) and T(x) are opposite.
• If k is constant and steady state exists, integration of Fourier’s equation from T1
to
T2 gives:
T T1  Analogy with Ohms law (I = V/R):
Q˙  kA 2 L-

T T • Driving force = T1 – T2 (corresponds to V)

Q˙ / A  1 2
Or, L/k • Thermal Resistance = L/k (corresponds to R)

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 Example: The wall of an industrial furnace is constructed from 0.15 m thick
fireclay brick having a thermal conductivity of 1.7 W/m.K. Measurements
made during steady state operation reveal temperatures of 1400 and 1150 K
at the inner and outer surfaces, respectively. What is the rate of heat loss
through a wall which is 0.5 m by 3 m on a side?

Schematic: Always try to provide it

Knowns: Steady state; L = 0.15 m; A = 0.5 × 3 m2;
k = 1.7 W/m.K; T1 = 1400 L; T2 = 1150 K.
Assumptions: 1. Steady state, 2. One dimensional
through the wall, 3. Constant properties

Analysis: heat transfer by conduction  Use Fouriers’law

T  T2
Q˙ / A  k 1
(1400 1150) K = 2833 W/m2 (Flux)
 1.7 W/m.K

L Q˙  (Q˙ / A) A= (0.5 m × 3 m) 2833 = 4250 W

Heat transfer rate:
W/m2
0.15 m
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 Thermal conductivity - k
 It is a property of materials, which is a measure of the ability of the
material to conduct heat

 k depends on microscopic
structure of the substance;

• Generally: ksolids > kliq > kgas

 ​ High value for thermal conductivity  good heat conductor

 Low value for thermal conductivity  poor heat conductor
(insulator)
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 Thermal conductivity of various materials
at room temperature

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 The thermal conductivities of gases such as air vary by a
factor of
104 from those of pure metals such as copper.

Pure crystals and metals have the highest thermal

conductivities, and gases and insulating materials the
lowest.

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 The variation of
the thermal
conductivity of
various solids,
liquids, and
gases with
temperature.

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 Thermal
diffusivity
c Specific heat, J/kg · °C: Heat
p
capacity
per unit mass
cpHeat capacity, J/m3·°C: Heat
capacity per unit volume
 Thermal diffusivity, m2/s: Represents
how fast heat diffuses through a
material

A material that has a high thermal

conductivity or a low heat capacity
will obviously have a large thermal
diffusivity.
The larger the thermal diffusivity,
the faster
the propagation of heat into the
medium.
A small value of thermal diffusivity
means that heat is mostly absorbed
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 Convection Heat Transfer
🞂​Convection is the mode of energy transfer between a solid surface
and the adjacent liquid or gas that is in motion.

Convection = Conduction + Advection (fluid motion)

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 Convection: Physical Mechanism
 Convection involves the transfer of heat by the motion and
mixing of "macroscopic" portions of a fluid (that is, the flow of a
fluid past a solid boundary).
 ​ Forced convection: the fluid is forced to flow over the
surface by b yexternal means such as a fan, pump, or the wind.
 Natural (or free) convection: the fluid motion is caused by
buoyancy forces that are induced by density differences due to the
variation of temperature in the fluid
 Change of phase (boiling, condensation, …)

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 Newton’s Law of Cooling
 The rate of convection heat transfer is expressed by Newton’s law
of cooling as
Qconv  hAs (Ts T )

(W)

h is the convection heat transfer coefficient in W/m2°C.

 h depends on variables such as:

 The surface geometry,
 The nature of fluid motion,
 The properties of the fluid,
 The bulk fluid velocity.
 Phase: single-phase/two-phase

Generally,
< hboiling &Heat Transfer –
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hfree < hforced hcondensation
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 Example

Water at 300 K flows over both sides of a plate of 6 m × 1.5 m in area,

maintained at 400 K. If the convective heat transfer coefficient is 200
W/m2.K, calculate the heat transfer rate.

300 K 400 K
Qconv  2hAs (Ts  T )
(W) Q = ??

Qconv  (2) (200) (6) (1.5) (400 - 300)

= 360 000 W = 360 kW

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 Radiation
Radiation is the energy emitted by matter in the form of
electromagnetic waves as a result of the changes in the electronic
configurations of the atoms or molecules.

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 Radiation: Physical Mechanism
 All materials radiate thermal energy, carried by photons of light in the
infrared and visible portions of the electromagnetic spectrum.
 In heat transfer studies we are interested in thermal radiation (radiation
emitted by bodies because of their temperature).
 Although we will focus on radiation from solid surfaces, emissions may
also occur from liquids and gases.
 Radiation differs from heat transfer by conduction and convection in that
no physical contact/medium is needed for its propagation.
 Heat transfer through a vacuum is by radiation only since conduction
or convection requires the presence of a material medium.
 Heat transfer by radiation is fastest (at the speed of light) and it suffers no
attenuation in a vacuum. This is how the energy of the sun reaches the
earth.

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 Radiation -
 The Emission
maximum rate of radiation that can be emitted from a
surface at a thermodynamic temperature Ts (in K or R) is given by
the Stefan–Boltzmann law as
Qemit ,max   AT
s s
4
(W)
 = 5.670 ×10 -8 W/m2·K4 is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant.

 The idealized surface that emits radiation at this maximum rate is called a
blackbody.

 The radiation emitted by all real surfaces is less than the radiation
emitted by a blackbody at the same temperature, and is expressed as
Qemit   AT
s s
4
(W)
01
 is the emissivity of the surface (Table
1-6)
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 Radiation - Emission

Ts = 400 K

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 Net Radiation Heat Exchange

🞂 ​The radiation emitted by a real

surface:
Qemit  AT
4
s s

🞂 ​The irradiation originating from the

surroundings:Q   AT 4
incident s surr

🞂 ​The radiation absorbed by the

surface:
Qabsorbed  4
s surr
AT
: The absorptivity of the surface

🞂
For a real surface:  =  (Kirchhoff’s law of radiation)
🞂 ​The net heat exchange from a body surface (at Ts) to its
surroundings
(at Tsurr) by radiation can be Qrad  Qemitted  Qabsorbed
  As (Ts4  T surr
4
)
calculated by:
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 Or hr: radiation heat transfer coefficient (W/m2.K)

For combined convection and radiation:

If :

Then

: combined heat transfer coefficient

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 It is that all three modes of
transfer are present; in this
possible heat
case
conducted through the wall is removed
heat
from the plate surface by a combination
of convection and radiation.

Energy balance
gives:
Surrounding at Tsurr

Q rad
Qcond  Qconv Qrad Q conv
˙
Flow ˙

Or, dT T
kA  hA (T T )   A (T4  T 4
) Ts
s  s sur
dy y r
0 Heat conducted
Q cond through wall
˙
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 PROBLEM-SOLVING TECHNIQUE
• Step 1: Problem Statement

• Step 2: Schematic

• Step 3: Assumptions and Approximations

• Step 4: Physical Laws

• Step 5: Properties

• Step 6: Calculations

• Step 7: Reasoning, Verification, and

Discussion

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