Right of

way?

Traffic
Traffic
lane
lane

Typical cross section of

road
 Camber
?
3
4
camber and its
types
5
Super elevation
7
 Geometry design
of highway

Cross section Element of Horizontal Elements of Vertical

elements alignment alignment
Geometric design of highway deals with following elements:
a. Cross section elements b. Element of Horizontal alignment
Traffic lane  Horizontal curvature radius or
length
Carriage way  Transition curve
Shoulder  Sight distance
Right of way
Side slope c. Elements of Vertical
Camber or cross slope alignment
Super elevation  Grade
 Submit curve
Sight distance across the road
 Valley curve
 2. Design Criteria and Controls

The geometric of highway depends upon the following

factors:
 Design speed
 Design vehicle
 Topography
 Traffic volume
 Traffic capacity
 Road user's behavior
Criteria for Geometric Design
Every highway should meet following four major objectives or
criteria:
Speed
Safty
Comfort
Economy
 3. Element of cross-section

Traffic lane
 It is a strip of carriage way
occupied by vehicles moving in a
single stream along road.
 Normally, the width of traffic lane
depends on width of design vehicle,
safety clearance on either sides.
 As per NRS 2070, the width of
traffic lane is given as below
Single lane Intermediate Multilane pavements
road lane width per lane
3.75m 5.5m 3.5m

(upto 3.0m in difficult terrain)

The number of traffic lane required for the given road is
determined theoretically by
N
n= C1
wℎere,
N = Design hourly volume of traffic
C1 = Basic capacity of traffic lane = 1000xV/S
V = Design speed (km/hr)
S = Average center to center spacing of
vehicle in m.
b. Carriage Way
 It is defined as a strip of road which is constructed
for the movement of vehicles.
It is also called pavement width. The width of pavement is
calculated by formula,
Cw = Tw x n
where,
Cw = Carriage way width lane
Tw = Width of traffic lane
n = numbers of lane
c. Shoulder
 It can be defined as strip provided on
both sides of carriage way.
 It provides lateral support to carriage
way and also serve as reserve lane for
overtaking.
 Very wide shoulder are also not
desirable due to tendency of vehicles
misusing it as a carriageway
 As per NRS 2070

Road classes Class I Class II Class III Class IV

Minimum shoulder 3.75 2.5 2.0 1.5
width, m
Camber or Cross slope
d. Camber or Cross slope
It is convexity provided to the cross section of
carriage way.
 In other words, it is a slope provided to road
surface in transverse direction to drain off rain
water from the road surface.
 It is provided by raising center of carriage way
with respect to edge forming a crown on the
highest point on the center line.
 It is expressed as percentage. Eg: If camber is
x%, the cross slope is x in 100.

Objectives of providing camber

 To drain out surface water
 To separate traffic in two direction
 To improve the appearance of road
 To prevent infiltration of water into underlying
pavement
Too steep cross slope is not desirable because
Formation of cross ruts due to rapid flow of water.
Unequal wear and tear of tyres as well as road surface due to
thrust on wheel.
Discomfort while overtaking.
Problem of toppling over of highly loaded trucks.

As per NRS-2070 camber on different road surface is given as

below:
Pavement Cement Bituminous Gravel Earthen
type Concrete
Camber, 1.5 to 2.0 2.5 4.0 5.0 8/29/20 4
2
Types of Camber
 Straight line camber
 Parabolic camber
 Composite camber

i. Straight line camber

It is that type of camber which is made of two equal straight line slopes.

.
ii. Parabolic Camber
• Parabolic camber is provided by providing a parabolic shape to the
surface of the road.
• It is also not used in general because it has steep slopes towards
the edges, which can create the outward thrust to the vehicles
and helpful for overtaking operation

Ordinate varies with squares of

distance
iii. Composite Camber
 It is either composed of partly parabola and partly straight line or
2
straight lines having different slopes.

Composite Camber

Camber in the gradient:

The camber in gradient should be increased. If reduced the rain water
tends to flow down parallel to the center line of the road.
Camber should not be less than half of the gradient.
numeric
al1. The center line of double lane road has an elevation of 320.50m. Camber of the
pavement is 2.5% and cross fall of the shoulder is 5%. Calculate elevation of
pavement at center of the lane, edge of pavement and road edge if
 Straight line camber is to be provided.
 Parabolic camber is to be provided.

=
320.412
 Super elevation.
 In order to overcome effect of centrifugal forces and to reduce the tendency of
vehicle to overturn or skid, the outer edge of the pavement is raised with
respect to inner edge.
 This transverse slope to the pavement is called super elevation.
 It is represented by e.
 Let us consider a vehicle moving in a circular curve of radius R
3
with respect to v m/s
0
Wv 2
Centrifugal forces on vehicles i.e. P
 gR

Let FA and FB be frictional force acting on wheel. Then for

equilibrium conditions

P cos   W s i n    F B .................1
F A similarly,

F
f  R AA , f  FB
RB
F BA
fxR B 
F B where,
f = coefficient of lateral friction.
P cos  W sin  fRA  fRB
P cos  W sin  f (R A 
RB )......................2
again,
Equating
R A  RB 2and
W 3cos  P sin............................3

P cos  W sin  f (W cos  P

sin ) P cos  W sin  fxWcox 
fxP sin P cos  fxP sin  W sin

 fxWcox P(cos  fx sin ) inW

  fxWcox

by 
P cos
Dividing both sides W
 W sin 
f
P cos  W sin f (WPcos
cos   fxP ……….
1 
f tan
PP(co  
tan 4
) in
fW
tan

If f = 0.15, tan is equal to 0.07, then

f tan 
0.01
and
1  f tan 
1 4 becomes
Then equation
Wv 2
 
e is required equation for super
f elevation
gRW
where,
v= speed (m/s)
g= acceleration due to gravity
R= radius
f= lateral coefficient of
friction (0.15)
 Here, coefficient of lateral friction depends upon the speed. Considering the discomfort to
passenger
due to centrifugal force, NRS suggests to limit the ratio of lateral to vertical forces to 0.15

As per NRS
2070
 If v is in
kmph 0.278v  v
2

e f 2

 9.8R 127R

where, v= speed (kmph)

R = Radius (m)
Vehicles do not have the same speed on a horizontal curve, therefore in such a case, only
mixed traffic flow condition is present. For superelevation calculation in mixed traffic
flow conditions, the speed shall be taken as 75% of design speed i.e., 0.75v, and the
lateral friction 'f' shall be neglected for safe conditions. Superelevation formula now
becomes,

e f
0.75v
2
127R

v2
e 0
 225R

e v2
 225R
DESIGN STEP OF SUPER-
ELEVATION
 Step 1: Calculate super elevation for 75% design speed neglecting friction
v2
e
225R
Step 2:
if calculated value is less than 7%, adopt calculated value as design superelevation otherwise if
calculated value of e is greater than standard allowable value, adopt 7% and proceed step 3

Step 3: check coefficient of friction for the maximum superelevation i.e 7%

v2
f   0.07
127R
If calculated value of f is less than 0.15, the superelevation of 0.07 is safe. If the obtained
value of "f” is greater than given value. then, we have to either change radius or velocity
but it is restricted to charge radius. So, we have to change velocity.
Step 4:
Adopted velocity
Va  e  f
Design the rate of super elevation for a horizontal curve of radius 500 m
and speed of 100 kmph

e = 0.07
V=80 KMPH
R= 200M
e=?
If e is not greater than 0.07, calculate the maximum allowable speed if it is not possible to
increase radius and f = 0.15

2 802

e v  0.142 
 225R 225x200 0.07
Since, maximum allowable super elevation is 0.07, take limiting value of e i.e. e= 0.07 and calculate
f 2 80 2
f  v  0.07  0.07  0.18  0.15
 127R 127x200
Here, the obtained value of "f” is greater than given value. So, we have to either change radius or velocity but
it is restricted to charge radius. So, we have to change velocity.
Therefor, Adopted velocity
Va e f x127xR 0.07 0.15x127x200 74.753Kmph

Thus, allowable speed may be restricted to more than 74 kmph.

 TYPES OF SUPER-
ELEVATION
[Link] super
elevation
[Link] super
elevation
i) Maximum
e  f super
elevation  gR
From the above relation, it is cleared that 'e' increases with increase in speed
and decrease in radiusv 2 for the constant value of 'f' but from the practical point of
view, it is necessary to limit maximum super elevation. So, as to avoid topping of
loaded vehicles, the maximum super elevation for mix traffic is 7% ( 0.07)., in hilly
areas not bound by snows 10%
ii) Minimum super elevation:
 It is necessary to have a maximum cross slope to drain off surface water. If
super elevation is equal or less than camber, then the minimum super
elevation to be produced on the horizontal curve maybe limited to a camber of
road way
 Methods of introducing super
elevation
1. Elimination of crown of camber
section.
It can be done by 2 methods:
 Rotating order edge about crown. Rotating order edge about crown

InShifting of crown outer
first method, progressively
half of cross
outward
section is rotated about crown at a
desired rate such that the surface falls
on the same plane as the inner half
and elevation of central line is not
changed.
In the second method, the crown
is progressively shifted outward. Thus,
increases the width of inner half of cross Shifting of crown progressively
section. outward
 2. Rotation of pavement of attain full super
 elevation.
There are two method of rotation of pavement to attain full super elevation:
 By rotating the pavement about central line the outer edge is raised and inner
edge is depressed each by half the total amount of super elevation. i.e. E/2
 By rotating the pavement about the inner edge by raising outer edge such
that the outer edge is raised by full amount of super elevation. i.e. E

E
How much should be the outer edge of pavement to be raised with respect to center line on the two lane road
design for mixed traffic at a speed of 80 kmph on a horizontal curve of radius 200m if the super elevation
is obtained by rotating the pavement with respect to
a) Center line.
b) Inner edge.

E
E
E 7
m
7
m
 Extra
Widening
On the horizontal curves, carriage way width is increased than
normal
width on straight portion. The increased width is called extra
widening.
The purpose of providing extra widening are:
 Drivers have tendency to keep away edge of carriage way
while
driving.
 The clearance between the vehicles passing each other in
the horizontal curve is caved more than on the straight road
due to psychological effect.
 Because of off tracking, more width of road is occupied by
vehicles.
So, width is increased in horizontal curves.
 All the beginning of curves, drivers wished to follow outer edge
 Types extra widening of
curve
Extra widening on horizontal curve is of two
types:
 Mechanical widening
 Psychological widening
 Mechanical widening
 The widening provided to account for off tracking
due to rigidity of wheel base is called mechanical
widening.
 Due to off tracking, the rear wheels follow a path of
shorter radius than the front ones and thus it
increases the effective width of road space
required by the vehicle
So we provide extra width to provide some
clearance between vehicles, to provide safety
against transverse skidding during high speeds
and also to provide stability for vehicles like
trailer trucks.
  R1= radius of path traversed by outer rear
wheel
 R2 = radius of path traversed by front wheel
 Wm = Mechanical widening.

R1= radius of path traversed by outer rear wheel

R2 = radius of path traversed by front wheel

Wm = Mechanical widening.
4 Now,
6
Wm = OC-OA = R2-R1
or, R1 = R2 - Wm (i)
Again,
In triangle AOB
OA2 = OB2 - BA2 (BY USING PYTHOGORUS
THEOREM)
R12 = R22 - L2
(R2 - WM)2 = R22 - L2
or, R22 - 2R2 x Wm + Wm 2 = R22 - L2
or, L2 = 2 x R2 x Wm -Wm2
= Wm (2R2 -Wm)
 l2  l2
Wm  2R 2
2R 2  Wm
If there are numbers of lane, then Mechanical widening

nl 2
Wm 
2R

In normal condition, ( l =
6.1m)
 ii) Psychological Widening
 Sometime extra width is provided for extra space required for
overhangs of vehicles and to provide greater clearance for
crossing or overtaking vehicles. Such widening provided to
pavement is called psychological widening.
 Mathematically, it is represented by

V
W ps
 9.5 R
Where,
V = speed
( kmph) R =
radius (m
 Total widening (We)
(We) = Wm+ Wps

We  nl  V
2

Where, 2R 9.5
R
n = number of lanes

l = length of wheel base in meter = 6.1

m v = design speed

R = radius (m)
METHODES OF PROVIDING EXTRA
WIDENING:
i. Widening of pavement on horizontal
curve
[Link] of pavement on sharp curve
 B C

Widening is provided in both side D

A of curve
(half extra width is provided at either side
of curve)

Fig 1: Widening of pavement on horizontal

curve
A-B: Extra widening is uniformly
increased B-C: Full extra width is
provided
C-D: Extra widening is uniformly
decreased

C
B
D
A Widening is provided in inner side of
(Full extra width is provided at
inner curve)
curve only

Fig 2: Widening of pavement on sharp curve

 Normally, widening is provided at the beginning of transition curve
and uniformly increased till full widening is provided at the end of
transition
 The curve.
full width i.e. (W+We) remains same throughout the circular curve.
 In the case of horizontal curve, We/2 is provided on the both side
of the curve.

half extra width is provided at either side of curve

 But, in the case of sharp curve full extra width is provided at the
inner side of the curve

Full extra width is provided at inner curve

On curves ing no transition two third of it should be attained before

the s t a r t of the circular curve and one third on the curve.
8 /2 9 /20 2 4
Determine the total width of pavement on a horizontal curve for a national
highway in plain area with a ruling minimum radius. Assume data as
follows
design speed = 100kmph
pavement width = 7m
numberbase
wheel of lane = 2= 6.1 m
length
ruling minimum radius = 360
m
Hint:
Total pavement width = pavement width + extra-widening

We  nl  V
2

2R 9.5
R
4. Elements of Horizontal Alignment
 Horizontal alignment is a series of straight line called
tangents with provision of curves at each change in direction.
The different element of horizontal alignments are:
 Tangent
 Horizontal Curve

a. Tangent
It is a straight line obtained by joining
two successive points of intersection of
two straight traverse line along road route.
 b. Horizontal Curve
5  It is a curve in a plan to provide change in direction to center
5 line of road. Deviation are necessary due to following reasons:
 Topography of terrain
 Restriction imposed by property
 To use existing right of way
 Other factors controlling
highway alignment

Types of horizontal curves

 Circular Curve
 Transition Curve
i. Circular curve
It is a curve having constant radius. It is classified into following types:
 Simple curve
 Reverse curve
 Compound circular curve
a. Simple curve
 It consists of single arc connecting two straight lines.
b. Reverse circular curve
 It consists of two or more arc of one or different radius turning
in two opposite direction.
c. compound circular curve
 It consists series of simple circular curve of one or different radius
turning in same direction and meet at common tangent point.
5
7

Curve with single

arc Curves with different
radius

curve of one or different radius turning in same

or different direction
ii. Transition Curve
A curve whose radius varies from infinity
at the tangent point to a designed radius of
circular curve.
Functions of transition curve
 To introduce centrifugal force gradually
between the tangent point and the
beginning of the circular curve so that
sudden jerk on vehicle can be avoided.
 To introduce design super elevation and
extra widening at the start of curve.
 To provide aesthetic appearance of road.
 To enable driver to turn steering gradually
for his own comfort and safety.
6
8 Elements of transition curve
 Factors affecting length of Transition Curve required
on Horizontal curve:
 Radius of circular curve.
 Design Speed
 Allowable rate of change of centrifugal acceleration.
 Maximum amount of super elevation (E), total pavement width
(B).
 Whether the pavement cross section is rotated about inner edge
or central line.
 Allowable rate of introductionof super elevation
whichdepends on terrain and environmental condition.
 Sight Distance:

 Sight distance is defined as the length of carriage way

that is visible to driver at any instant from the
specified height of driver's eye above the road surface.
 According to NRS, the height of driver's eye is 1m and
height of object is 0.15m above the road surface.
Sight distance
Restriction to sight
distance
i) Horizontal curve
 Building curve
 Visibility restriction
due to head light limitation
 Restriction due to the tree
 ii) At vertical summit curve
7  Restriction of visibility for night
3 driving.

iii)At valley curve

 Problems of night visibility
iv) At intersections
 Restrictions to visibility due to presence of
building.
 Types of sight
distance
Stopping sight distance
Safe overtaking or passing sight
distance
Stopping sight distance

OVERTAKING SIGHT
DISTANCE
 Stopping sight
Distance
It is a total distance needed by a vehicle to stop
before meeting other object in his path.
Stopping sight distance = Lag distance + Braking
distance
Lag Distance
It is a distance travelled by vehicle during total reaction
time. According to NRS, the total reaction time is 2.5secs.
Mathematically, Lag distance = v*t
Where,
V= design speed (m/s)
t = total reaction time (sec)
If V is in kmph,
 Braking Distance
It is a distance travelled by vehicle after application of brake.

Mathematically, if F is the maximum frictional force developed and l be the

braking distance, the work Done against frictional force is F x l =fx
Wx 2g l
This will be zero when the vehicle
stopped
The kinetic energy at design speed v m/s is Wv2
Equating work done and Kinetic Wv2
fWl
energy  2g
2
l v
 2 fg
If V is in kmph, braking distance = V2/254f
Where, f = coefficient of lateral friction
Stopping sight distance = Lag distance + Braking
distance
= Vt+V2/2gf
 Stopping Sight Distance At
Slope
 Let us consider a slope with ascending gradient (+n%) on which a
vehicle is moving with speed v m/s and l be the braking
distance (distance cover after break is apply)

breaking force, each equal to W sin 𝜃 = wtan 𝜃 =

 The component of gravity acting parallel to the surface which acts to
Wn
100
wn =
 Kinetic energy due to inertia of motion Wv
2

is 2g

 Work done by frictional force and

components of weight opposite to motion is

Wn
( fW  100
)*l
Equating kinetic energy and work
done
Wn Wv2
( fW  )*l 
100 2g
n Wv2
(f  )W *l 
100 2g

l v2
n
2g( f  )
100
 similarly, in the case of descending
gradient
l v2
n
 2g( f  )

Therefore, stopping sight distance100

= v
2
SSD  vt 
n
2g( f )
10
If speed is in kmph , 0

Stopping sight distance
2
is SSD  0.278vt 
v
n
254( f  )
10
0
 Headlight sight distance = Stopping sight distance
Intermediate sight distance = 2* stopping sight
distance
Coefficient of friction as per Nepal Road
Standard 2070 Speed (kmph) Coefficient of friction (f)

20 to 30 0.48
40 0.38
50 0.37
60 0.36
65 0.36
80 0.35
100 0.35
C. Calculate minimum sight distance needed to
prevent a head on collision of two cars
approaching from opposite direction at 90 kmph
and 60 kmph. Assume a reaction time as 2.5 sec, f
= 0.7 and brake efficiency as 50% for each case.
B. Calculate the minimum sight distance required to avoid a head on collision if
speeding
truck at 40 kmph along a certain 5 % grade downward in a single lane
road
encounters with another vehicle coming toward it at a speed of 90 kmph.

Assume a total reaction time of 2.5 sec and f = 0.35

SSD  0.278vt v2
n
 254( f )
 100
 Overtaking sight
distance: Vehicle to be
overtaken

Overtaking
vehicle

Vehicle coming from opposite

lane
 Let, A be the vehicle which overtakes B and A1, A2, A3 are it's different
position at different interval of time.
 B be vehicle to be overtaken and B1 and B2 are it's position at different
interval of time.
 C be the vehicle coming from opposite lane and C1 and C2 are it's position
at different interval of time.
 Vb = speed of overtaken vehicle
 V = design speed of vehicle A and C
 d1 = distance travelled by overtaking vehicle A during
reaction time 't' seconom A1 to A2
 d2 = distance travelled by overtaking vehicle A during
overtaking
 operation from A2 to
d3 = distance A3 duringby
travelled thevehicle
time interval
C from'T'
C1 during the
second.
time interval 'T' sec.
 Distance travelled by vehicle A during reaction time’t’ sec is
d1. d1 = Vb * t --------------(i)
From position A2 the vehicle A overtakesB and goes back to it's previous
lane in the position A3 in the time interval 'T' secs. The distance
between A2 and A3 is d2 and the minimum distance between A2 and B1 is
S. Similarly, the minimum distance required between B2 and A3 is S.
d2=s+b+s =
b+2s b= distance traveled by vehicles B during overtaking time, T
Where,
sec
b = vb*T
d2=s+b+s = vbxT+2s………..(i)

By Empirical formula,
s = (0.69vb+6.1)m = (0.7vb+6) m, where vb is m/s
Using general formula for the distance traveled by a uniformly
accelerating body with initial vb and acceleration a,
 From equation i and ii,
8
5 vb*T+2s =
vbT+0.5aT2
4s
T
 a

If, a= acceleration
(kmph/sec)
14.4s
T
 A
where
s = 0.2vb + 6
vb= velocity of the overtaking vehicle
(kmph)
8
6

 The distance traveled by the vehicles coming from

the opposite lane i.e. from the position C1 to C2 is d3
 Therefore,
Overtaking sight = d1+d2+d3 = vbt+vbT+2s
 tdistance + VT
= reaction time = 2.5 secs as per NRS
2070
 If velocity O.S.D
is given
= in terms
0.278 of kmphT +2s+
vbt+.278v b
0.278VT
 NOTE
8 , In the case, if the velocity of overtaken vehicles i.e. v is not given,
 b
7
the overtaken speed is assumed as
(v-4.5) m/s, Where, v= design speed in m/s
Or
(v-16)kmph, Where, v= design speed in kmph

Overtaking sight distance (O.S.D)

A) One way road = d1+d2
B)Two way road = d1+d2+d3
C) The minimum length of overtaking zone for One way road =
3(d1+d2)
D)The minimum length of overtaking zone for Two way road =
3(d1+d2+d3)
 problem
8 A. The speeds of overtaking and overtaken vehicles are 80 and 60 kmph respectively.
8 If acceleration of overtaking vehicle is 2.5 kmph per second, calculate safe passing
sight distance for
One way
traffic. Two way
traffic.
hints
d1 = Vb * t
d2=s+b+s =
b+2s b = vb*T
d2=s+b+s
= vb14.4s
xT+2s
T
 A
s=
(0.69vb+6.1)m
= (0.7vb+6) One way road = d1+d2
m, B) Two way road =
where vb is d1+d2+d3
m/s
 Factors affecting stopping sight
9 distance
Total reaction time
1
 It is time taken from the instant the object is visible to driver to
the instant the brakes are effectively applied. It is of two types.
i. Perception time
ii. Braking reaction time

[Link] time
The time required for driver to realize that brake must be
applied is
called perception time.
[Link] reaction time
It is the time that elapses between moments, the foot is
removed from accelerator and placed on the brake paddle
 PIEV Theory
9
2
 Perceptio
9
3 n:
Time for sensation by eyes and transmission to brain from
nervous system.
Intellection:
 Time to understand situation.
Emotion:
 Emotional sensation and disturbances such as fear, anger, etc.
Violation:
 Time taken for final action.
 b)Spee
9 d
The braking distance or distance moved by the vehicles after
4 application of brakes depends upon the speed of vehicle.
Greater the speed, greater will be stopping sight distance.
c) Efficiency of brake
Break efficiency is said to 100%, if wheels are fully locked preventing
them from rotating on the application of breaks. This results in
skidding which is not acceptable. So, breaking force should be
greater than frictional force between wheels and pavement.
d) Friction between road and wheel
It depends upon the nature of road and condition of road. The
breaking
distance increases with decreases in skid resistance.
e) Gradient
If there is positive gradient, stopping distance is less and
if there is negative gradient, stopping sight distance is high.
9
VERTICAL
5 ALIGNMENT
Gradien A
n
1:
X
B
t: Gradient is the rate of rise or fall along the length
 % of the road with
respect
to the horizontal.
 It is expressed as the ration of 1:x (1 vertical unit : x horizontal
unit).
 Sometimes the gradient is expressed as n percentage. i.e. n%.
 A rising or ascending gradient is donated by positive sign such
as +n1,
+n2, etc. and the descending gradient is donated by negative sign
such as –n1, -n2 etc

A
9 Types of
6
gradient
a) Ruling gradient
b) Limiting gradient
c) Exceptional
gradient
d) Minimum gradient.
 Ruling gradient
9  It is the maximum gradient with which the designer attempts to
7 design a vertical profile of the road.
 Ruling gradient is also known as the design gradient.
 IRC recommend ruling gradient of 1 in 30 in plain and rolling
terrain and 1 in 20 in mountainous terrain and 1 in 1.7 on steep
terrain.
Limiting gradient
 It is gradient steeper than ruling gradient. On rolling terrain and hilly
terrain it is
necessary to exceed ruling gradient and adopt limiting gradient.
Exceptional gradient
 It is gradient steeper than limiting gradient which is provided in
exceptional cases only. Eg hair pin bend. The disadvantages are
 More fuel consumption
 More friction losses
 Reduces engine efficiency
 Wear and tear to pavement and wheel
9 Minimum
8 gradient
 The road can be level with little or no gradient.
 In such cases there will be problem of drainage system
thought the surface water can be drain off providing camber
and cross slope and additional longitudinal slope is needed to
drain water.
 The minimum gradient depends upon rainfall, types
of soil, topography and other site condition.
 Curve resistance for turning
9 vehicles. Automobiles are steered by turning the front
9 but rear wheels do not
wheel
turns.
 So during the movement of vehicle
Tcos
α on the horizontal curve, direction of
rotation of rear and front wheel are
different and there is loss tractive force.
 AB is rear wheel which gives tractive forces
(T) along PQ directions. The front wheel CD is
turned along the horizontal curve and the
tractive force is produced along RS and the
tractive force is equal to Tcosα. This tractive
force is less than actual force
 Loss in the tractive force is T- Tcosα = T(1-
cosα)
 This loss of the tractive force due to turning
of vehicle on the horizontal curve is called
curve resistance.
 Compensation in
10
0 gradient
 Due to turning angle, the curve i.e T(1- cosα)
resistance is
[Link] there is horizontal curve in addition to
 Similarly,
gradient, there will be increase in resistance due to grade and
the curve and it should not exceed the resistance due
to maximum gradient specified.
 So during design of sharp horizontal curve, the gradient
should be decreased to compensate the loss of the
tractive force due to curve.
30  R
 Grade
compensation =
R 75
 The maximum limit of grade
Where R is the radius
compensation = of circular
curve R
 Problem: While aligning a hill road with ruling
10 gradient of 6% in horizontal curve of 60 m is
1 encountered. Find the compensated gradient at
a Ruling
curvegradient is
6% 30 
 Grade compensation = R
R

30
= 
60
60
= 1.5%
75 75
Maximum limit of grade compensation = =
is R 60 1.25%
Compensated gradient = 6% - 1.25% =
4.75%
10
Vertical
2 curves
The vertical curves used in highway may be of
two types
A. Summit curves
[Link] curves
10
Summit curves
3
 The vertical curve having convexity upward is called summit
curve. The summit curves develops in following cases as
shown in fig
  While designing the length of summit curve we need to
10
consider
4
stopping sight distance and overtaking sight distance.
10
Two cases are to be considered while
5 designing length of summit curves for the
stopping sight distance.
Case A:
 When the length of summit curve is greater than
stopping sight distance
Case B
 When the length of summit curve is less
than stopping sight distance
 Case A:
10
6
When the length of summit curve is greater
than stopping sight distance (L>SSD)
 The general equation for the length of summit curve of the parabolic curve
i.e
NS 2
2H  2h )2
L = (

L = length of summit
curve S = stopping sight
distance N = Angle of
deviation
H = height of eye level of
driver above the road
surface = 1.2m (IRC)
 NS 2
L 4.4
10
7
=

Case B
 When the length of summit curve is less than sight
distance
(L<SSD
( 2H  2h )2
Length of summit curve 2S 
N
=

If,
H= 1.2m
h=
0.15m L 4.4
2S  N
=
 Two cases are to be considered for designing
10 the length of summit curve for overtaking
8
sight distance

Case A
 Length of summit curve is greater than overtaking sight
distance
Case B
 Length of summit curve is less than overtaking sight
distance
 Case A
10 Length of summit curve is greater than overtaking
9
sight distance (L>OSD)

NS 2
L
( 2H 2h )2
=


9.6 2
NS
=

if H = h = 1.2m (IRC)
S = overtaking sight
distance
 Case
110 B
Length of summit curve is less than overtaking
sight distance (L<OSD)

( 2H  2h )2
L 2S 
N
=
= 9.6
2S  N
 problem
11 A. Design length of summit curve formed at intersection of two gradient
1 +3.0% and -5.0% in order to provide stopping sight distance for design
speed of 80 kmph. Assume all necessary data.
 B. A ascending gradient of 1 in 80 meets descending
11
gradient
100. Design
of 1ain
summit curve for 100 kmph so as to have a
2
overtaking sight distance of 500m.
 Valley
11 curve
A vertical curve having convexity downward or
3
concavity upward is called valley curve

Length of valley curve is designed for two cases

Allowable rate of change of centrifugal acceleration 0.6
m3/s Head light sight distance
 Case A
11 The length of valley curve for the comfort conditions is
4 given by
NV 3
] 21 where v is in m/s
L = 2[ C

When
V = Kmph
C = rate of change of centrifugal acceleration =
0.6
L = 0.38x(NV3)0.5
 For stopping sight distance
11 Case A :The length of valley curve is greater than
5 stopping sight distance

NS 2
L=
2h1  2s tan

h1 = height of head light from road surface =

0.75
=minclined angle of head light beam = 1
degree
11
Case B : The length of valley curve is
6 smaller than stopping sight distance
11
7

 2s tan 
 L = 2S –
2h1 N
1.5 
 L = 2S 0.035XS if h1 = 0.75 and α iso
N
- 1
 a)Design the length of valley curve for
118
comfort and head light sight
bothdistance requirement for a design
speed 80 kmph if it is formed with a
descending grade of 1 in 25 meets
an ascending grade of 1 in
30. Take c = 0.6 m/s3

n2 = 1/30
n1 = -1/25 N = n1-n2
=-1/25-
1/30
=-11/150