SIGHT DISTANCE ELEMENTS

STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE

OVERTAKING SIGHT DISTANCE

 STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE

Lag Distance Braking Distance

Distance Travelled Distance Travelled after

during Reaction Time application of brakes
STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE
 Highway with adequate sight ahead of a travelling vehicle results in
safe operation.
 Distance along road surface at which a driver has visibility of
objects, stationary or moving, at a specified height above carriage
way is known as sight distance.
 Stopping sight distance is the distance required by a driver of a
vehicle travelling at a given speed to bring her/his vehicle to stop
after an object on the roadway become visible.

 Stopping sight distance is made up of two components:

Lag distance ; this is travelled during perception and brake reaction
time.

Braking distance ; this is travelled during the time brakes are under
application till the vehicle stops.
• Perception and brake reaction time depend upon factors such as:
age, sex, alertness, visibility etc.
• IRC suggests 2.5sec a reasonable value for perception and brake
reaction time.
• Lag Distances;
d1 = v t

= 0.278 V t
= 0.278 V x (2.5)
= 0.695 V
where;
d1 = distance travelled in m
v = speed in m/sec
V = speed in kmph
t = perception and reaction time = 2.5 sec
• Braking Distance;
d2 = 0.039 V2 / a

Where;
d2 = braking distance in metres
V = speed in kmph
a = Deceleration rate m/sq. sec.

Stopping sight distance = d1 + d2

 For calculation of safe stopping sight distance

consider:
Height of the driver’s eyes: 1.2m
Height of the object: 0.15m
• Studies have shown that most drivers decelerate at a rate greater
than 4.5m/ sq. sec. (unexpected object on the roadway).

• About 90% of drivers decelerate at rates greater than 3.4m/ sq. sec.

• Such decelerations are within driver’s capability to stay within her/

his lane and maintain steering control during braking maneuver on
wet surfaces.

• Thus 3.4m/ sq. sec has been recommended by AASHTO.

• Braking system of most vehicles and the tire-pavement friction

levels are capable to provide a deceleration rate of 3.4m/ sq. sec.
 In case of grade, the stopping sight distance is adjusted as:

d2 = V2/ (254 ((a/9.81)± 0.01G)

where,
G = longitudinal grade in percent.

• Grade correction should not be applied on undivided roads with

two-way traffic, but must be considered for divided highways
which have independently designed profiles.
• Stopping sight distances needed on upgrades are shorter than on
level roads and those on down grades are longer.
• Sight distance available on downgrades is larger than on upgrades,
more or less automatically providing appropriate corrections for
grade.
• This is why designers do not adjust stopping sight distance because
of grade.
• Grade is traversed by traffic in both directions of travel, but sight
distance at any point generally is different in each direction.
 Variations for trucks:
• Recommended stopping sight distances are based on passenger car operation
and do not explicitly consider for truck operation.

• Large and heavy trucks needed longer stopping distances from a given speed
than passenger vehicles.

• However, the driver is at a higher level and this offsets the extra length
requirement.

• Thus separate stopping sight distances for trucks and passenger cars are thus not
used.

• Where horizontal sight restrictions occur on downgrades, particularly at the

ends of long downgrades, where truck speeds closely approach or exceed those
of passenger cars, greater height of eye of truck driver is of little value.

• Even though average truck driver is more experienced that average passenger
car driver and quicker to recognize potential risks, it is desirable to provide
longer stopping sight distance than normally required.
 Stopping sight distance as per IRC

Design speed in kmph Safe stopping sight

distance (metres)
20 20
25 25
30 30
40 45
50 60
60 80
65 90
80 120
100 180
 Decision Sight Distance
• Stopping sight distances are normally sufficient to stop under ordinary
circumstances.
• These distances are inadequate when drivers must make complex or
instantaneous decisions when information is difficult to perceive or when
unexpected or unusual maneuvers are required.
• Examples:
1. Interchange or intersection locations where unusual or unexpected
maneuvers are required.
2. Change in cross section such as toll plazas and lane drops.
3. Visual noise (competing source of information such as roadway
elements, traffic, traffic control devices and advertisements).
• Limiting sight distances to those needed for stopping may preclude
drivers from performing evasive maneuvers, which often involves less
risk and otherwise preferable to stopping.
• Stopping sight distances may not provide sufficient visibility distances
for drivers to corroborate advance warning and perform appropriate
maneuvers.
• There are many locations where it would be prudent to provide longer
sight distances.

• In these circumstances, decision sight distance provides longer sight

distance.

• Decision sight distance is the distance needed for a driver to detect an

unexpected or otherwise difficult-to-perceive information source or
condition in a roadway environment that may be visually cluttered,
recognize the condition or its potential threat, select and appropriate
speed and path and initiate and complete the maneuver safely and
efficiently.

• Decision sight distance criteria that are applicable to most situations

have been developed from empirical studies.

• Distances vary depending on whether the location is on a rural or urban

road or on the type of avoidance maneuver required to negotiate the
location properly.
LOCATIONS WHERE SIGHT DISTANCES PLAY
MAJOR ROLE

INTERSECTIONS

HORIZONTAL CURVES

VERTICAL CURVES

SIGNS AND SIGNAL LOCATIONS

 CONFLICT
OF POINT
N E T
LI GH
SI

INADEQUATE VISIBILITY - BAD INTERSECTION DESIGN

 FLARING
IMPROVES
VISIBILITY
 SIG OF
HT
E
LIN

VEGETATION BLOCKING THE SIGHT ON A HORIZONTAL

CURVE
 Line of
Sight

SIGHT DISTANCES AT VERTICAL CURVES ARE AFFECTED

BY GRADIENT. FLATTER SLOPES PROVIDE HIGHER
VISIBILITY
SPEED BREAKER AHEAD SIGN -
LOCATION
OVERTAKING SIGHT DISTANCE ON TWO-LANE
TWO-WAY HIGHWAYS
Overtaking sight distance on two-lane two-way highways:
o Overtaken vehicle travels at a uniform speed which is 15kmph less
than the design speed of road
o Overtaking vehicle reduces speed and trails behind overtaken
vehicle
o Overtaking vehicle follows the vehicle ahead to perceive the clear
road ahead before beginning overtaking operation
o Overtaking is done by accelerating to the designed speed and
hurriedly returning to its own lane
o When overtaking vehicle returns to its lane, it arrives alongside an
oncoming vehicle in the opposite lane.

 AASHTO suggests that certain clearance should be available

between two.
Overtaking sight distance
Where,
d1 = dist. travelled during the perception and reaction time
and during the initial acceleration to the point of
encroachment on the right lane
d2 = actual dist. covered by the overtaking vehicle during
overtaking maneuver
d3 = dist. between overtaking vehicle at the end of
maneuver and the opposing vehicle (clear length)
d4 = distance travelled by an opposing vehicle at the design
speed while the overtaking maneuver is taking place.

 Sometimes in practice distance d4 is taken as 2/3rd of d2 on the

reasoning that the overtaking vehicle can always return to its lane if
the driver sees an opposing vehicle.
 d1 = vb x t

Where,
vb is the speed of the overtaken vehicle and t may be taken as 2sec.

d2 = b + 2s

Minimum distance between overtaking and overtaken vehicles is a function of speed

and may be considered as:
s = (0.7 vb + 6) metre
If time taken by A from A2 to A3 is T sec, dist. covered by B during that time is:
b = vb x T

d2 = vbT + ½ a T 2
Again,
where,
a = acceleration
Equating them,
—
T = √ 4s/a

AASHTO suggests a and d3 values based on speed as:

d3= vbT + 2s

Speed range in kmph

50-65 66-80 81-95 96-110

d3 30 55 75 90

acceleration in km/hr/sec
50-65 66-80 81-95 96-110

a 2.25 2.3 2.37 2.41

• IRC has simplified the calculation of overtaking sight distance assuming that it
takes about 9 to 14 sec for the overtaking manoeuvre.

• Additional 2/3rds of this value is added for the distance travelled by the opposing
vehicle:

Speed (kmph) Safe overtaking sight

distance (m)
40 165
50 235
60 300
65 340
80 470
100 640

• Sight distance for multi-lane highways;

Divided highways with 4 or more lanes need to be designed only for
stopping sight distance.
Effect of grade on passing sight distance

• Appreciable grades affect sight distance needed for passing.

• Passing is easier for vehicles travelling downgrade because

overtaking vehicle may accelerate rapidly and thus reduce the time
of passing.

• However, overtaken vehicle can also accelerate easily so that a

situation akin to a racing contest may result.

• Sight distance needed to permit vehicles travelling upgrade to pass

are greater.

• Likelihood of opposing vehicle may speed up is high.

• Compensating for this somewhat are factors that the passed vehicles
frequently is a truck that usually loses some speed on appreciable
grades

• Also drivers are usually aware of the greater distances needed for
passing upgrade (compared to level conditions).

• Considering above facts, passing sight distance should be greater

than derived design value.

• Specific adjustments are not available, but designer should recognize

the desirability of exceeding suggested values.
Frequency and length of passing section
• Sight distance adequate for passing should be encountered frequently on two
lane highways.

• However, frequency and length depend on topography, design speed and cost.

• It is not practical to directly indicate frequency with which passing sections

should be provided on two lane highways.

• Designer’s appreciation of their importance and studied attempt to provide them

can usually ensure others at little or no cost.

• In steep mountainous terrain, it may be more economical to build intermittent

four-lane sections or passing lanes in lieu of two-lane sections with passing
sight distance.

• Even for low volume roads, a driver desiring to pass, on reaching the passing
section, find vehicles in opposing lane and thus unable to use passing section.
• Frequent passing sections directly affect the LoS of a two-lane
road.

• HCM has shown that up to 19% increase in percent time spent

following when no passing zones comprise 40% of analysis length
(considering 50/50 directional distribution).

• Effect of restricted passing zone is even more severe for unbalanced

flow and where no-passing zones comprise more than 40% of the
length.

• Similarly travel speed also gets affected due to absence of adequate

passing zones.

• A demand flow rate of 800 passenger cars per hour incurs a

reduction of 3.1km/h when no passing zone comprise 40% of
analysis length.
SIGHT DISTANCE FOR MULTI-LANE ROADS
On horizontal curves with obstructions on the inside, lateral
clearance to obtain sight distance is an important issue:
o Sight distance is measured along the arc of the curve.

o For pavements with two or more lanes, sight distance is measured

along the arc at the centre line of the inner lane.

 Case I
When sight distance is less than length of the curve S<L
(for two-lane road)
- Angle subtended at the centre by the arc = α degrees

m = R – (R-p/2) cos α/2

Where,
m = distance to obstruction from centre line of road
p = width of inner pavement lane
α = angle subtended at the centre by arc length S

Also, 360/ α = 2 π(R-p/2)/S

α /2 = 180 S/ 2 π(R-p/2)

 Case II
When S>L for two-lane road

m = R – (R-p/2) cos α/2 + (S-L)/2 sin α/2

Fig.(a) showing case I
Fig.(b) showing case II