TRANSFORMERS

WHAT IS A TRANSFORMER

A transformer is a static device which transfers ac electrical

power from one circuit to another circuit by means of
electromagnetic induction at the same frequency.

used to convert high alternate voltage to a low alternate voltage and

vice versa.
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRANSFORMERS

The transformer works on the principle of mutual induction

The principle of mutual induction states that when the two coils are
inductively coupled and if the current in one coil change uniformly then
the e.m.f gets induced in the other coil. This e.m.f can drive a current
when a closed path is provided to it.”
 OPERATION OF TRANSFORMER

I1 I2

E1
E2

(i) Primary coil is supplied with a AC voltage.

(ii) Current I1 drawn produces a magnetic field (flux Φ set up in the core)

(iii) Flux Φ links with both the windings

(iv) Flux induces emf E1 in the primary which opposes the cause V1

(v) Magnetic field transported to a secondary coil via a magnetic circuit,

Magnetic field induces a voltage in secondary coil E2
 TRANSOFORMATION AND TURNS RATIO

Ratio of secondary side voltage to primary side voltage is called

Transformation Ratio

Transformation ratio is Given by

Turns Ratio is given by

Where N1 = Primary side turns ,

N2 = Secondary side turns.
V1 = Primary side voltage,
V2 = Secondary side voltage
 EMF EQUATION OF A TRANSOFORMER

• Due to the sinusoidally varying voltage V1 applied to the primary voltage, the
flux set up in the core, is given by

• The resulting induced emf in a winding of N turns,

• Thus, the peak value of the induced emf, Em = ωNΦm.

• Therefore, the rms value of the induced emf E,

• This equation, known as EMF equation of a transformer.

 TYPES OF TRANSFORMERS

Mainly Transformers are of two types

(I) CORE type Transformers (II) SHELL type Transformers

Features of core type transformer:

(i) Windings encircle the core
(ii) One magnetic circuit
(iii) Preferred in low power transformers where
(iv) Voltage ratings < 11KV
(v) Core is made from stacking silicon steel laminations-To reduce hysteresis and
eddy
current loss
(vi) Each lamination is coated with varnish to provide insulation
(vii) Windings are made of copper or aluminum
CORE TYPE TRANSFORMER
 SHELL TYPE TRANSFORMER

Features of Shell Type Transformer

(i) Windings encircle the core

(ii) Two magnetic circuit

(iii) Preferred in high power transformers where voltage

ratings > 11KV

(iv) Core is made from stacking silicon steel laminations-
To reduce hysteresis and eddy current loss Each lamination is coated with varnish to
provide
insulation
(vi) Windings are made of copper or aluminum
 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CORE TYPE AND SHELL TYPE
TRANSFORMERS
SL. CORE TYPE SHELL TYPE
NO

1. The windings encircle the core The core encircles most part of the
windings.
2. Single magnetic circuit Double magnetic circuit.
3. Core has 2 limbs Core has 3 limbs.
4. Cylindrical coils Sandwiched coil are used.

5. Natural cooling is effective Natural cooling does not exist.

6. Coils can be easily removed Coils cannot be removed easily.

7. Preferred for low voltage Preferred for high voltage transformers.

transformers.
 LOSSES IN TRANSFORMERS

There will be two main losses in transformers

1. Core loss (Constant Loss-Wi) (ii) Copper Loss (Variable Loss- Wcu)

• Iron Loss ( core loss) : These are the Hysteresis Loss and Eddy current
Loss.
• Iron loss is a constant loss and does not vary with load.

• Each time the magnetic field is reversed, a small amount of energy is lost due to

hysteresis within the core.

• Determined by conducting no load (open circuit) test.
HYSTERESIS LOSS:

When alternating current flows through the windings, the core material
undergoes cyclic process of magnetization and demagnetization.
Kh = hysteresis coefficient whose value depends upon the material

(Kh = 0.025 for cast steel, Kh = 0.001 for silicon steel)

Bm = Maximum Value of Flux Density in Tesla

f= Frequency in Hz

V= Volume of the core

High silicon content in the core minimizes the hysteresis loss

EDDY CURRENT LOSS:
The eddy current loss is a complex function of the square of supply frequency and
square of the material thickness

Ke = eddy current constant

Bm = maximum flux density (in tesla)
f = frequency (in hertz)
t = thickness of lamination used in the core
V = volume of the core
By laminating the core , eddy current loss can be minimised
COPPER LOSS:

• Current flowing through the windings causes resistive power loss

• Heating of the conductors.

• It varies as the square of the load currents

• Loss can be determined by conducting short circuit test
VOLTAGE REGULATION:
Defined as the change in its secondary terminal voltage from no load to full load
expressed as a percentage of the secondary terminal no load voltage, the primary
voltage being assumed constant.

0V2 = secondary terminal voltage at no load,

V2 = secondary terminal voltage at full load
SIGNIFICANCE OF VOLTAGE REGULATION

(i) Ideally regulation should be zero

(ii) No variation in secondary terminal voltage from no load to full load

(iii) Typically, regulation of practical transformer < 5%

(iv) Variation in secondary terminal voltage is due to voltage drop in primary and

secondary windings

(v) Transformer with low impedance will have very good regulation
EFFICIENCY OF A TRANSFORMER:
The Efficiency of the transformer is defined as the ratio of useful output power to the
input power. The input and output power are measured in the same unit. Its unit is
either in Watts (W) or KW. Transformer efficiency is denoted by Ƞ.

V2 – Secondary terminal voltage

I2 – Full load secondary current

Cosϕ2 – power factor of the load

Pi – Iron losses = hysteresis losses + eddy current losses

Pc – Full load copper losses = I22Res

Consider, if the x is the fraction of the full load, the efficiency of the transformer at any load
x is expressed as

The copper losses vary according to the fraction of the load.

CONDITION FOR MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY OF A TRANSFORMER:

The efficiency of the transformer along with the load and the power factor is expressed by
the given relation:
 The value of the terminal voltage V2 is approximately constant. Thus, for a given power

factor the Transformer efficiency depends upon the load current I 2. In equation (1), the
numerator is constant and the transformer efficiency will be maximum if the
denominator with respect to the variable I2 is equated to zero.

i.e COPPER LOSSES = IRON LOSSES

Thus, the transformer will give the maximum efficiency when their copper loss is equal to
the iron loss.

From the above equation, the value of output current I2 at which the transformer
efficiency will be maximum is given as

If x is the fraction of full load KVA at which the efficiency of the transformer is maximum
then,
Copper losses = x2Pc (where Pc is the full load copper losses)

Iron losses = Pi
For maximum efficiency
x2 Pc = Pi
Therefore

Thus, output KVA corresponding to maximum efficiency

Putting the value of x from the above equation (3) in equation (4) we will get,

The above equation (5) is the maximum efficiency condition of the transformer.
 25

E&E ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT
PROBLEMS ON TRANSFORMERS

1) A single phase, 20 kVA transformer has 1000 primary turns & 2500
secondary turns. The net cross sectional area of the core is 100 cm 2. When
the primary winding is connected to 500V, 50 Hz supply, calculate (i) The
maximum value of the flux density in the core (ii) The voltage induced in
the secondary winding (iii) The primary & secondary full load currents.
Solution:
(i) E1 = 4.44fφm N1 - Volts

500 = 4.44 * 50 * φm * 1000

φm = 2.252mWb

Bm = = = 0.2252 Wb/m2
(ii) = i,e =
(iii) I1 = i.e I1 = = 40A

I2 = i.e I2 = = 16A

2. The primary winding of a 25kVA transformer has 200 turns & is connected

to 230V, 50 Hz supply.
The secondary turns are 50. Calculate (i) No load secondary induced emf (ii)
Full load primary &
secondary currents (iii) The flux density in the core, if the cross section of
the core is 60 cm2.
Solution:

(i) = i.e, =
(ii) I1 = i.e, I1 = = 208.7A

= i.e, =
(iii) E1 = 4.44fφm N1 - Volts

230 = 4.44 * 50 * φm * 200

So we will get φm = 5.18mWb

Bm = = = 0.863 Wb/m2

3. A 10 kVA, 400/200 V, 50Hz, single phase transformer has a full load copper

loss of 200W & has a

full load efficiency of 96% at 0.8 p.f. lagging. Determine the iron Loss. What
would be the efficiency
at half of the full load & unity p.f?
Solution:
losses = - output

Losses = - = - = 333.33 W

Total loss = Wi + Wcu

Iron loss ; Wi = 333.33 – 200 = 133.33 watts

Efficiency at half of the full load & UPF is given by

= 96.46%
4. A 50kVA, 3300/330 V, single phase transformer has iron loss & full load
copper loss of 400 W & 600W respectively. Calculate the efficiency at half full
load & 0.9 p.f. Also calculate the load at which the efficiency is maximum.
Solution:

We have

Load for maximum efficiency = Full load kVA

= 50 = 40.823kVA
5. A 600kVA transformer has an efficiency of 92% at full load, unity p.f & half
load, 0.9 p.f. Determine its efficiency at 75% of full load & 0.9 p.f.
Solution:

0.92 =

= 52,173.9 W --- (1)

0.92

= 23,478.26 W --- (2)

Solving equation (1) & (2) we get,

Wi = 13,913.03 W & Wcu = 23,478.26W

DOMESTIC WIRING
Wiring done in domestic premises for providing electrical power for fans, lighting &
domestic appliances are called as DOMESTIC WIRING.

FACTORS TO BE CONSIDER WHILE DOING WIRING:

a. Durability

b. Safety

c. Appearance

d. Switch closed accessibility

e. Maintenance cost

f. Over all Cost

SERVICE MAINS:
1. Generally a cable which connects the distributer to consumers terminals.

2. It mainly consists of conductors which are of a few meters long, that run from the pole

to

consumer’s premises. For single phase supply, two wires are used; a phase wire & a

neutral wire.

Two types of service mains are (i) Overhead service mains (ii) Underground service

mains.

1. Overhead service mains:

 Wires are connected from electrical pole to the meter board

Underground service mains:

Preferred when

Obstructions such as buildings, trees, large sized moving vehicles etc

Overcrowding of overhead lines

Aesthetic point of view

Disadvantages: i) Cost is high ii) Inconvenience for future excavation of

earth
METER BOARD & DISTRIBUTION BOARD:
WIRING SYSTEM:

A network of wires connecting various accessories for distribution of electrical energy

from the supplier-meter board to the numerous electrical energy consuming devices

such a lamps, fans etc. through controlling & safety devices is known as wiring system.

TYPES OF WIRING SYSTEM:

Depending on the application, there are various types of wiring installations.

 Conduit wiring.

 TRS wiring.

 PVC wiring & capping.

 Cleat wiring.
 CONDUIT WIRING:

i. Metallic tubes called as conduits are to run the wires.

ii. Its gives full mechanical protection to the wires.

iii. It is desirable for workshops & public buildings.

iv. Depending on whether the conduits are laid inside the walls or supported on the

walls, there are two types of conduit wiring.

There are Two types of conduit wiring

1. Surface Conduit Wiring

2. Concealed Conduit Wiring

SURFACE CONDUIT WIRING
CONCEALED CONDUIT WIRING
CONCEALED CONDUIT WIRING
 The conduits are made up of mild steel.

 The standard length of each conduit may be of 4m.

 Based on the outer diameter various size conduits from 12mm to 63mm are available.

 The conduits are to be erected completely before laying any cable in it.

 The rigid conduits are always terminated at outlets into a box which may be round, square

or octagonal.

 These boxes are used to provide connections for lights, fans, heaters etc. & are called

outlet boxes.

 Inspection boxes are used to facilitate the pulling of conductors while junction boxes are

used to house the junctions of the conductors.

ADVANTAGES
 The beauty of premises is maintained.
 It is durable.
 It has a long life.
 It requires very less maintenance.
 Damaged wires if any can be replaced easily.
 It protects the wires from mechanical shocks, moisture & fire hazards.
 Proper earthing of conduits makes the method electrical shock proof.

DISADVANTAGES:
 The repairs are very difficult in case of concealed conduit wiring.

 This method is most costly and the erection requires highly skilled labour.

 Keeping conduit at earth potential is must. Without proper earthing there is danger
of electric shocks. If manufacturing conduit is not proper then sharp edges of the
metal conduits can cause damage of the insulation of the wires.
 Comparison between Surface & Concealed wiring
SURFACE CONDUIT WIRING CONCEALED CONDUIT WIRING

Conduit is fixed on the wall Conduit is buried under the plaster

Conduit is fixed by means of saddles They are fixed by means of ‘J’ hooks

It is not fully protected from It is fully protected from mechanical

mechanical injury. injury.

It is cheaper compared to concealed It is comparatively costlier.

conduit wiring.

It has got bad appearance. It has good appearance.

Tees and elbows can be used. Only bends are to be used.

TWO WAY CONTROL OF LAMPS

L L
1 1

Com Com
L2 L
2
SPDT Switch 1 SPDT Switch 2

Neutral

Lamp
TWO WAY CONTROL OF LAMPS

L1 L1

Com Com

L2 L2

SPDT SPDT Switch

Switch 1 2

Neutral

Lamp
TWO WAY CONTROL OF LAMPS
48

L1 L1

Com Com

L2 L2

SPST SPST Switch 2

Switch 1

Neutral

Lamp
TWO WAY CONTROL OF LAMPS

L1 L1

Com Com

L2 L2
SPDT Switch SPDT
1 Switch 2

Neutral

Lamp
TWO WAY CONTROL OF LAMPS

L1 L1

Com Com

L2 L2
SPDT SPDT Switch
Switch 1 2

Neutral

Lamp
TABULAR REPRESENTATION OF 2 WAY CONTROL
OF LAMPS

Switch 1 Switch 2 Lamp

L1 L1 ON

L1 L2 OFF

L2 L1 OFF

L2 L2 ON
 THREE WAY CONTROL OF LAMPS
C D
52
A B

P X Y
E F G H

SPDT DPDT Intermediate Switch 3 SPDT Switch

Switch 1 2

N
Lamp

P-X-A-B-G-H -No closed connection- lamp OFF

 THREE WAY CONTROL OF LAMPS
C
53
A B D

P X Y
E F G H
SPDT DPDT Intermediate Switch 3 SPST Switch 2
Switch 1

N
Lamp

P-X-A-B-G-H-Y-lamp-N - closed connection- lamp ON

 THREE WAY CONTROL OF LAMPS
B C D
54
A

P X Y
E F G H
SPDT DPDT Intermediate Switch 3 SPST Switch 2
Switch 1

N
Lamp

P-X-A-B-C-D -No closed connection- lamp OFF

 Three WAY CONTROL OF LAMPS
B C D
55
A

P X Y
E F G H
SPDT Switch 1 DPDT Intermediate Switch 3 SPDT Switch 2

N
Lamp

P-X-A-B-C-D-Y-lamp-N - closed connection- lamp ON

 Three WAY CONTROL OF LAMPS
C D
56
A B

P X Y
E F G H
SPDT Switch 1 DPDT Intermediate Switch 3 SPDT Switch 2

N
Lamp

P-X-E-F-G-H-Y-lamp-N - closed connection- lamp ON

 Three WAY CONTROL OF LAMPS
B C D
57
A

P X Y
E F G H
SPDT Switch 1 DPDT Intermediate Switch 3 SPDT Switch 2

Lamp

P-X-E-F-G-H - No closed connection- lamp OFF

 THREE WAY CONTROL OF LAMPS

A C D
B

P X Y
E F G H
SPDT Switch DPDT Intermediate SPDT Switch
1 Switch 3 2

N
Lamp
 TABULAR REPRESENTATION OF 3 WAY CONTROL OF LAMPS

Switch Switch 3 Switch Connection Lamp

1 2

A B-C, F-G D P-X-A-B-C-D-Y-lamp-N ON

A B-C, F-G H P-X-A-B-C-D OFF

A B-G, F-C D P-X-B-G-H OFF

A B-G, F-C H P-X-B-G-H-Y-lamp-N ON

 protective devices

Necessity of protective devices

 Electrical & Electronics Circuits
 Excessive high current
 Excessive high voltages
 Voltage fluctuations
 Failure of insulation
 Atmospheric lightning

Various types of protective devices

 Fuse
 Miniature Circuit Breaker-MCB
 Earthing
 Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker-ELCB
 Residual Current Circuit Breaker-RCCB
FUSES:
1. Invented by Thomas Alva Edison.
2. Fuse is a protective device used against overloading or faults.
3. It is a small piece of metal.
4. Melts when current exceeds predetermined value.
5. Fusing element, fuse carrier and a base – fuse unit.
6. Fuse wire must have high resistivity and low melting point.
7. It should be free from oxidation and should be non-deteriorating.
8. Fusing element materials are ,Tin, Lead, Zinc, Silver, Aluminum, Copper and their alloys.
9. Alloy of Tin and Lead is commonly used for small currents.
[Link] is best suited.
[Link] oxidation, no deterioration of the material.
[Link].
TYPES OF FUSES:

Kit Kat type/ Re-wirable Fuse Cartridge Fuse

High Rupturing Capacity (HRC) Fuse

TERMS RELATED WITH FUSES:

Rated current: It is that value of current which the fuse can carry without melting.
It depends on the following factors:
 Permissible temperature rise of fuse contacts of fuse holder.
 Fusing element material.
 Degree of diminish due to oxidation.
Fusing Current: It is the minimum value of the current at which it melts to interrupt
the circuit.
Fusing current> Rated current

Fusing Factor: It is the ratio of the minimum fusing current to the rated current. It is always
greater than unity.
Fusing current
Fusing factor 
Rated current of fuse
MCB-MINIATURE CIRCUIT BREAKERS:
A MCB is a mechanical switching compact device used in distribution board for protection against
(i) Overload (ii) Short circuit
Features:
 Protection against overload and short circuit(SC) currents
 Thermal trip mechanism using bimetallic strip for overload protection
 Electromagnetic trip mechanism for SC protection
 Operation is very fast & opens in < 1msec
WORKING PRINCIPLE:

I. The Operating Mechanism of Miniature Circuit Breaker provides the means of manual

opening and closing operation of miniature circuit breaker.

II. It has two-positions “ON” “OFF” .

III. When manually switch off the MCB, the switching latch will be in “OFF” position. In close

condition of MCB, the switch is positioned at “ON”.

IV. By observing the positions of the switching latch one can determine the condition of MCB

whether it is closed, tripped or manually switched off.

EARTHING:
The process of connecting metallic bodies of all the electrical apparatus and equipment to huge
mass of earth by a wire having negligible resistance is called Earthing.
PURPOSE OF EARTHING:

 To protect the operating personnel from danger of shock in case they come in contact with the

charged frame due to defective insulation.

 To maintain the line voltage constant under unbalanced load condition.

 Protection of the equipments

 Protection of large buildings and all machines fed from overhead lines against lightning

QUALITIES OF GOOD EARTHING:

 Must be of low electrical resistance

 Must be of good corrosion resistance

 Must be able to dissipate high fault current repeatedly

PIPE EARTHING: Cast iron
cover Ground Level

Funnel with mesh

Cement concrete 600 mm

20mm dia GI pipe

150m 150mm Earth wire
m

5-6 m deep
38mm dia GI pipe

Hole of 12mm dia

Salt layer

Charcoal layer
PIPE EARTHING CONSTRUCTION:

i. Pipe earthing is best form of earthing and it is cheap , also in this system of earthing a GI
pipe of 38 mm dia & 2 Mts. length is embedded vertically in ground to work as earth
electrode but the depth depend upon the soil conditions, there is no hard and fast rule for
this.
ii. But the wire is embedded up to the wet soil.
iii. The earth wire are fastened to the top section of the pipe with nut and bolts.
iv. The pit area around the GI pipe filled with salt and coal mixture for improving the soil
conditions and
v. efficiency of the earthing system.
vi. It can take heavy leakage current for the same electrode size in comparison to plate
earthing.
vii. The earth wire connection with GI pipes being above the ground level can be checked for
carrying ou continuity test as and when desired, while in plate earthing, it is difficult.
viii. In summer season to have an effective earthing three or four bucket of water is put through
PLATE EARTHING:
Cast iron cover
Cement chamber

Funnel with mesh

Ground Level

GI pipe
Copper wire for connection
Water
3m

Copper Charcoal and salt mixture

plate
90 cm 60x60x3.18
or
60x60x6.35
15 cm
90 cm
PLATE EARTHING CONSTRUCTION:
 Earth resistance for copper wire is 1 ohm

 Earth resistance for GI wire is less than 3 ohm

 Plates used

 Copper plate of size 60 cm x 60 cm x 3.18 cm

 GI plate of size 60 cm x 60 cm x 6.35 cm

 Plate is placed vertically down inside the ground at a depth of 3m

 Plate is embedded in alternate layers of coal and salt for a thickness of 15cm.

 Water is poured to keep the earth electrode resistance well below 5 ohms

 Earth wire is bolted to the earth plate

 Cement masonry chamber is built with a cast iron cover for regular maintenance
Cause for Electric Shock:

By poorly insulated wires or ungrounded electrical equipments

By using electrical equipment while in contact with water

By being struck by lightning

What may happen when we Get an Electric Shock

Burns (which are the most common)

Damage to body parts

Death
PRECAUTIONS AGAINST ELECTRIC SHOCK:
 Operators should use insulated tools and gloves.
 Metal parts of the equipment should be earthed properly.
 Cover all electrical sockets with insulating caps.
 Replace all worn out electrical chords and cables.
 Avoid operating electrical equipments with wet hands.
 Use footwear while operating the electrical equipments.
 Avoid operating electrical equipments with both the hands.
 Inspect power cords and extension cords, do not allow children to play with any electric cords.
 Limit the use of extension chords and be sure that the chords are rated for the current.
 Use the outlet covers to protect infants.
 Explain to adolescent children that they should not climb on power tower, play near transformer
systems and electrified train rails or other electrical systems.
 Use common sense can help reduce electrical injury. People who work with electricity should
always check that the power is off before working on electrical systems.
 Avoid use of any electrical device near water be careful of standing in water or when working