Module 3
Methods of Design
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
• The main aim of structural design is to design a structure so that it
fulfills its intended purpose during its intended lifetime with
adequate safety, adequate serviceability and economy.
• Safety : interms of strength and stability
• Implies that the likelihood of collapse of structure is acceptable low not
only under the normal expected loads(service loads) , but also under
abnormal load (such as live loads, earthquake/ wind load.
• Collapse may occur due to exceeding the load-bearing capacity,
overturning, sliding, buckling, fatigue, fracture etc.
• The objective here is to minimize the likelihood of progressive collapse
triggered by a local failure
• Serviceability : interms of stiffness and durability
This implies satisfactory performance of the structure under
service loads, without discomfort to the users due to excessive
deflection, cracking, vibration etc.
Other considerations are durability, impermeability, acoustic
and thermal insulation etc.,
A design adequately satisfies the safety requirements need not
necessarily satisfies serviceability requirements.
Economy : reasonable
• Increasing design margin of safety can enhance safety and
serviceability but this increases the cost of the structure.
DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES
• Design philosophy is built up on a few fundamental premises and
is reflective of a way of thinking.
• Design philosophies
• Working Stress Method – Modular Ratio method
• Ultimate Strength Method – Load Factor Method
• Reliability based Method
• Limit State Method
DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES
WORKING
ULTIMATE LOAD REALISTIC LIMITS STATE
STRESS
METHOD 1950s METHOD 1960s METHOD 1972
METHODS 1900
DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES
Working Stress Method – Modular Ratio Method
• It is traditional method used not only for RC but also for structural
steel and timber.
• This method is based on linear elastic theory.
• First theoretical method accepted by National Codes of Practice for
the design of reinforced concrete sections
• Ensures adequate safety by suitably restricting the stresses in the
materials(Concrete and steel) induced by expected working loads
on the structure.
• The assumption of linear elastic behavior is considered justifiable
since the specified permissible stresses are kept well below the
ultimate strength of the material.
Working Stress Method – Modular Ratio Method
• The ratio of
yield stress of steel reinforcement = Factor of Safety 1.8
permissible or working stress
The ratio of
Cube strength of concrete = Factor of Safety 3.0
permissible or working stress
Working Stress Method – Modular Ratio Method
• Concrete is composite, Strain Compatibilty is used i.e Strain in
steel is assumed to be equal to that of strain in the adjoining
concrete to which it is bonded
• The stress in steel is linearly related to the adjoining concrete by a
constant factor called modular ratio
• Modular ratio = modulus of elasticity of steel
modulus of elasticity of concrete
DEMERITS OF WORKING STRESS METHOD
• The WSM does not show the real strength nor gives true factor of
safety of the structure under failure.
• The modular ratio design results in larger percentage of compression
steel that given by LSM, Thus leading to un-economic design.
• Because of creep and nonlinear stress-strain relationship, concrete
does not have definite modulus of elasticity.
• WSM also fails to discriminated between different types of loads that
act simultaneously , but have different degree of uncertainity.
MERITS OF WORKING STRESS METHOD
• Simple both in concept as well as in application
• Design will usually results in relatively larger sections of structural
members, compared to the ULM. Due to this, structures design by
WSM give better serviceability performance (like less deflection,
less crack width etc) under working load.
• WSM is the only method available to investigate the RC section for
service stresses and for the serviceability states of deflection and
cracking.
ULTIMATE LOAD METHOD
• The Ultimate load method was evolved in 1950’s as an alternative to WSM.
• The method is based on the ultimate strength of reinforced concrete at ultimate
load.
• The ultimate load is obtained by enhancing the service load by some load factor
referred to as Load factor for giving a desired margin of safety.
• This method is introduced as best alternative to WSM in ACI Code in 1956, the
British codes in 1957 and the Indian codes in 1964.
• In the ULM stress condition at the state of impending collapse of the structure is
analysed, thus using the non-linear stress-strain curves of steel and concrete .
ULTIMATE LOAD METHOD
• The safety measure in the design is obtained by using proper load factor.
• Makes it possible to use different load factor for different loading conditions
• Satisfactory strength performance at ultimate loads does not guarantee
satisfactory serviceability performance at normal service loads.
• Since it utilizes the large reserve strength in plastic region and of ultimate strength
of member, the resulting section is very slender or thin.
• This gives rise to excessive deflection and cracking, also this method does not
considered the effects of creep and shrinkage.
MERITS OF ULM
1. While the WSM uses only linear part of stress-strain curve, the ULM uses
fully the actual stress-strain curve.
2. The load factor gives the exact margin of safety against collapse.
3. The method allows to use different load for different types of load and
load combination
4. The failure load computed by UTM matches with the experimental results
5. The method is based on the ultimate strain as the failure criteria.
6. The method utilizes the reserve strength in the plastic region.
DEMERITS OF ULM
1. The method does not take into consideration the serviceability
criteria of deflection and cracking.
2. The use of high strength reinforcing steel and concrete results in
increase of deflection and crack width.
3. The method does not take into consideration the effect of creep and
shrinkage.
4. In the ULM, the distribution of stress resultants at ultimate load is
taken as the distribution at service load magnified by the load
factor(s).
LIMIT STATE METHOD
• WSM – satisfactory performance at working loads and unrealistic
at ultimate load of collapse
• ULM – realistic assessment of safety, it does not guarantee the
serviceability requirements
• An ideal method is the one which takes into account not only the
ultimate strength of the structure but also the serviceability and
durability requirement
• LIMIT STATE METHOD – ensures safety against collapse(ultimate
strength to resist ultimate load) and checked for serviceability at
working loads, rendering the structure fit for its intended use.
LIMIT STATE METHOD
• The acceptable limit of safety and serviceability requirements,
before the failure occurs is called LIMIT STATE.
• A limit state is the state of impending failure beyond which a
structure ceases to perform its function satisfactorily, interms of
either safety or serviceability.
• The main aim of LSM of design is to achieve acceptable
probabilities that the structure will not reach a limit state.