Reproduction System

The system that give birth to the colorful world

Research Group: 张嘉农

杨心怡
兰青
柳斯琦
 Abstract

1. The Evolutionary Tree

2. Detailed Features
3. General description about the evolution process
of reproduction system
4. Comparisons and analysis
5. Summary
The evolutionary Tree

locust
Arthropoda
crayfish

Annelida
Earthworm

Aschelminthes
Roundworm
 Necator Americanus(Round worm)

• Gonad: Long, coiled and uncomplicated

• Main Structure:
Male: testis—sperm duct—genital pore …single
Female: ovary—oviduct—genital pore …pair
Very few adjunctive organs are formed

Uterus

Ovary
Anatomic image of female roundworm Anatomic image of male roundworm
• Reproductive
capacity:
Usually about
100~1000(Astonishing large
quantity) eggs are
produced, that is,
[Link] has very
strong reproductive
capacity
• Dioecious
• Internal fetilization

Transversal image of roundworm

 Lumbricus terrestris(Earthworm)

• Gonad: Reduced in
length, but more
complicated both in
structure and function
• Systerm structure:
Resembles the
Complicated
[Link], with reproduction organs
more adjunctive organs
added, like the Anatomic image of an earthworm

prostates and the

sperm funnels
• Reproductive capacity:
one sexually matured [Link] can only produce
0.05 juveniles every day on average. And the average
survival rate of the larva is 90%.
• Monoecious
• Internal fertilization

Transversal image of earthworm

Reproduction system is not seen
as clear as the roundworm
 Clitellum of an earthworm
Clitellum
The deriving of clitellum:
when an earthworm is sexually
matured, certain glands in the body
wall inflate into a ring that circles the
body, to form the clitellum

Chemical formation of clitellum

Mucoid, chitinous materials…

The clitellum is a cocoon for the

deposition of eggs and sperm.
Position: 14-16 segments
 Motion of the clitellum

We see an unique reproduction method in the species: [Link]

two earthworms finished copulation, the sperms are temporally
stored in a sac called seminal receptacles.
[Link] the worm begins to back out of it, meanwhile, the eggs
are released into the clitellum through oviduct.
[Link] occurs when it move pass the seminal receptacles.
[Link] last, the clitellum is separated from the earthworm and the
development of the young takes place in the clitellum.
 Homarus Ameicanus(Crayfish)

• Gonad: main structure is the same with the

phylum talked before. The length is relatively
shorter and no significant changes had taken
place.
• External fertilization
• Direct development: the adult is directly
developed from the embryos.
The most distinct feature of [Link]
is its gonoducts.

Male genital
pore

Male crayfish

Female crayfish
Female
genital pore
 In fact, the 1st pair pleopods of the male crayfish is
specialized to be a sperm transferring tube. During
copulation, the sperms are shed through the genital
pore, then they are transferred through this peculiar
appendage and are conducted to the space near the
ventral part of a female, where the fertilization occurs.
 Locusta migratoria (locust)

• Gonad: main structures remain the same, while

adjunctive organs are evolved specifically for
terrestrial living and hatching.
adjunctive organs:
female: collateral gland (helps to secret
a sheath over the eggs for
protection)
male: a paired gland ( help to activate the
sperms)
• Internal fertilization
• Reproductive
capacity:
The number of eggs a locust
produce is about 110 in
average.
It is a large number and may
lead to disaster if not properly
controlled.

The reproduction process of locust

 Comparisons and analysis
After summarizing our results and findings of
the experiments, we can draw a rough draft
about the evolutionary direction of the
reproduction system. The results are gathered in
the table given below.
At the same time, many problems presented
as we are trying to give an general principle of
evolution. And those are the questions we are to
explain.
 The evolution of reproduction system
Female male
Nematodes(dioec A pair of ovary A pair of testes
ious&dimorphic) A pair of oviducts Three pairs of seminal
A pair of uterus that unite to form a vagina vesicle
The vagina opens to the outside through a single sperm duct
genital pore

Oligochaete A pair of ovaries A pair of short oviduct A pair of testes

(Monoecious) The oviduct open to the outside through a genital Four prostate (a kind of
pore adjunctive gonad)
The genital pore open at the base of the 3rd
periopod

Crayfish A pair of ovaries A pair of testes

(dioecious A pair of oviduct that assemble to a total oviduct A pair of sperm ducts
&dimorphic) A pairs of seminal vesicle

Locust A pair of ovaries A pair of testes

(dioecious A pair of oviduct that A pair of sperm ducts
&dimorphic) assemble to a total oviduct A pair of seminal vesicle
A seminal receptacle A tubular adjunctive gonad
A tubular gland
They both have complicated adjunctive gonads, which have been described in detail
Through the table, we can figure out such
a evolutionary process:
Original structure of the reproduction
External reproduction
system: gonad—gonoduct—genital pore

Adjunctive organs are gradually added Internal reproduction

Asexual reproduction Low survival rate

Sexual reproduction High survival rate

Why is lobster’s reproduction system so
undeveloped?
Seeing from the table, it’s clear to learn that the
reproduction system of a lobster is not so complicated
or even below the stage of the earthworm, however, it’s
taxonomic position is higher than the later one, Why?

Crayfish A pair of ovaries A pair of testes

(dioecious&dim A pair of oviduct that assemble to a total A pair of sperm ducts
orphic) oviduct A pairs of seminal vesicle

It doesn’t have special adjunctive organs!

 After discussion, we come to the conclusion:
The evolutionary state of every system is not always at the
same pace during revolution. For example, once a tremendous
progress happens to the respiration system, its nervous system
may stayed in the previous stage, and that can be applied to other
systems which we may regard as degeneration.

This concept can be presented in a coincide-model.

The time table

diploblastic Non-coelom pseudocoelomata coelomata

Developing stage of reproduction system

Stage 1
Stage 2
Stage 3
Stage 4

Coincided part
 In fact, now our taxonomic standard is coelom. When
deciding the evolutionary stage of a species, evidences are
given due to the development of coelom.
But as the coinciding effect, higher level of a particular
system can be found in a lower level of taxonomy, while on
the other hand, lower level of a certain system can be
equally found in a higher level of taxonomy.

According to this theory, we can give an explanation to

the “strange degeneration” phenomenon of lobsters.
 External vs Internal
It is concluded from the comparisons that
the general trends of fertilization method is
evolving from external fertilization to internal.
This change is obvious if we compare a
worm with a mammal. But we should not take it
for granted. It’s significant to raise the question
Why.
 When we were discussing this question, we
encountered some disputes. We formed two
views towards this question.
1. The survival efficiency of internal fertilization is
far higher than external method.
a specie has two ways to maintain the quantity of a
population: a. large numbers of eggs but low survival rate
b. small numbers of eggs but high survival rate

Adopting strategy a requires more energy and mass

because every egg needs nutrition and the nutrition all
come from the female. In order to save the energy, the
evolution select strategy b. And this strategy is
accomplished by internal fertilization.
2. The result mainly lies on the living environment
If the environment is fierce, they need to develop a secure
system to protect their fertilized eggs.
Taking roundworm and locust for example, roundworm parasites in
other animal’s gut, and faces the threat of the host’s immune system,
if the eggs are exposed to the outside, the chance of being killed
increases vertically. For insect—the primary immigrant to terrestrial
life, water is so precious and it’s probable to die without water supply
from its mother.
In the ecosystem, the parent generation pays no attention to
the cost of reproduction, no matter it will consume a lot of
energy. It’s just a matter of environmental pressure that results
in the change.
 Dioecious or monoecious?
This question is not so difficult to think.
We all know that the higher the differentiation, the
more powerful a certain tissue will be. It is analogous
to the reproduction system. If the system is
specialized for merely one sex, its function will be
stronger. That’s why dioecious species seem to be
more developed.
 Asexual Sexual

This world is filled up with wonders, among

which is sex.
We know female and male are basic elements
of many species. We also learn that some
species can reproduce without mating.

But we are curious about which system is more

adaptive, asexual or sexual.
 John Maynard Smith’s model
Sexual reproduction is complicated, costly and
dangerous, but why is this method so wildly used?
John Maynard Smith(1978) approached this question by
developing a null model, containing 2 assumptions.
a. the reproduction mode doesn’t affect the number of offspring
b. The reproduction mode doesn’t affect the survival chance

Under that assumptions, we have the table below:

Sexual Asexual
F×M F
F×M F×M FFFF
F×M F×M FFFFFFFF
F×M F×M
FFFFFFFF
We can see that in every generation, the population of asexual
will be 2 times larger than sexual. So before long, the world is
overwhelmed by asexuals.
But does that happen?
Dunbrack’s experiment:

Mix
Replace

evolved Not
Sexual reproduction evolved
1 generation

After n generations
Living Pressure
(malathion)
Predicted result: the asexual takes over, the sexual be eliminated
Experimental result: the sexual takes over, the asexual disappears

1.0

0.9

0.8

0.7
proportion red
0.6

0.5

0.4 10ppm
0.3
5ppm
3ppm
0.2

0.1

0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10
time arrow

After all, the sexual can overcome the pressure and survive. And also the
stronger the Malathion, the shorter it takes for sexual to take over, thus
reflecting the advantage of sex.

So the null model is incorrect, we need an advanced theory to

explain this question.
Sexual reproduction means genetic combination.
Under this direction, scientists had developed 2 explanations
100

1. Genetic drift, in combination with mutation, 90

80

70

can make sex beneficial 60

propotion
50

40

30

In asexual reproduction, a deleterious genetic 20

10

mutation will pass on and on, while sexual

0
0 1 2 3 4

reproduction process can produce mutation-free

offspring immediately, by mating mutation-free mate. 100

80

[Link] conclude that deleterious mutation will 60

propotion
accumulate in asexuals. With deleterious genes 40

accumulated, the asexual will end in extinction 20

0
0 1 2 3 4

But sexual reproduction breaks that ratchet, as they

can create zero-mutation genotypes even if it is extinct 100

in parent generation 80

60

propotion
40

20

0
0 1 2 3 4

Accumulation in asexual reproduction

2. Selection by a changing environment can make sex benificial
In constant environment, it will be safer to choose asexual reproduction.
However, the core problem is our environment is changing every moment.

Imagine a situation: Environment A favors genotype BBYY

Environment B favors genotype BByy
(Certain population have gene B, b, Y, y)

Environment A most BBYY few BByy

change

Environment B BBYY decline to extinct BByy remains and propagate

After a period

Environment B few BBYY most BByy

change

Environment A BBYY remains and propagate BByy decline to extinct

Cycling…

This theory is proved by the Red Queen Hypothesis Experiment

 Summary
During the process of evolution, the structure and
function of the reproduction system gradually develops
towards the destination of a more effective, higher
quality, and more adaptive system.
The success owes to 2 factors, the inner one and
the outer one. The inner factor is associated with the
evolution of coelom and other systems that give rise to
a boom to the creature. The outer one is the living
pressure from the environment—the natural selection,
and also the living habit of certain specie.
This concept is very important in researching the
evolution and solving questions.
 Both asexual and sexual reproduction
occur in the animal kingdom

 Asexual reproduction involves the formation of

individuals whose genes all come from one parent.
 There is no fusion of sperm and egg.
 Sexual reproduction is the formation of offspring
by the fusion of haploid gametes.
 Ovum: female gamete - usually large and nonmotile.
 Spermatozooan: male gamete - usually small and motile.
 Sexual reproduction increases genetic variation among offspring.
Asexual Reproduction

Sexual Reproduction
 Sexuality
Hermaphroditism versus Gonochorism
Hermaphroditism: both sexes in the same
individuals
Gonochorism: sexes are separate
Acropora sp., a Fungia scutaria, a
hermaphoditic coral gonochoric coral

eggs
egg cloud

sperm packet
 Brooding vs Broadcast Spawning
Brooding: eggs develop to planula stage in
gastrovascular cavity of parent polyp
Broadcast Spawning: eggs and sperm are shed
into the water column where fertilization and
development occurs

D. Gulko released gametes

planula in polyp

Pocillopora damicornis, broadcast spawner

a brooder
 Sequential hermaphroditism: an individual
reverses its sex during its lifetime.
 Protogynous: female to male

• Protandrous: male to female

 Parthenogenesis
Egg development without fertilization
• Aphid
• Daphnia
• Honeybee
• Whiptail lizard
• Komodo Dragon
• Hammerhead Shark
 Internal and external fertilization both
depend on mechanisms ensuring that
mature sperm encounter fertile eggs of the
same species
 Internal fertilization requires cooperative
behavior that leads to copulation.
 External fertilization requires a moist habitat that
will protect a developing egg from desiccation and
heat stress.
– Specific mating behaviors assure that sperm and
egg will be in the same place at the same time.

Surinam Toad
 Pheromones: chemical signals released
by one organism that influence the
behavior of other individuals of the same
species.
 Many act as male attractants.

female
male
 Species with internal fertilization
usually produce fewer zygotes but
provide more parental protection than
species with external fertilization
 Internal fertilization usually results in the production
of fewer zygotes than does internal fertilization.
 However, the survival rate is lower for external
fertilization than it is for internal fertilization.
 The externally fertilized eggs of fishes and
amphibians are surrounded by a gelatinous
coat.
 The internally fertilized amniote eggs of birds,
reptiles, and monotremes are protected by
calcium and protein shells.
 In mammals the embryo is retained within the
females reproductive tract.

Platypus egg New born platypuses and Mom

– Parental care of
offspring may
occur
regardless of
whether
fertilization is
external
or internal.
 Complex reproductive systems
have evolved in many animal phyla
 The least complex reproductive systems lack
gonads.
 Polychaete worms lack gonads.
 Eggs and sperm develop from undifferentiated cells lining the
coelom.

• Some reproductive systems, such as that

seen in parasitic flatworms, can be very
complex.
Reproductive anatomy of a parasitic flatworm
 Most insects have separate sexes with
complex reproductive systems.
 In many species the female reproductive
system includes a spermatheca, a sac in
which sperm may be stored for a year or more.
 The basic plan of all vertebrate
reproductive systems are very similar.
 However, there are variations.
 In many non-mammalian vertebrates the
digestive, excretory, and reproductive
systems share a common opening to the
outside, the cloaca.
 Mammals have separate opening for the
digestive and reproductive systems.
 Female mammals also have separate openings
for the excretory and reproductive systems.