Engineering Design

Design

- a plan or drawing produced to show the look and function or workings of a

building, garment, or other object before it is made
- the form, parts, or details of something according to a plan

Design establishes and defines solutions to and pertinent structures for problems not
solved before, or new solutions to problems which have previously been solved in a
different way.

Engineering design is the method that engineers use to identify and solve
problems.

The engineering design process is a common series of steps that engineers use in
creating functional products and processes. The process is highly iterative - parts of the
process often need to be repeated many times before another can be entered - though
the part(s) that get iterated and the number of such cycles in any given project may
vary.
 Types of Design
• Original Design: - an original, innovative concept to achieve a need
- Successful original designs occur rarely, but when they do occur they
usually disrupt existing markets
e.g. Development of microprocessor

• Adaptive design : - the design team adapts a known solution to satisfy a different need

to produce a novel application

- relatively common in design
e.g. User interface adapted to different screen sizes

• Redesign : - engineering design is employed to improve an existing design

- The task may be to redesign a component in a product that is failing
in service, or to redesign a component so as to reduce its cost of
manufacturing
- Does not affect working principle of original design
e.g. Change in shape to reduce stress concentration
• Selection Design : - the design task consists of selecting the components with
the needed performance, quality, and cost from the catalogs

of potential vendors
e.g. Selection of motors, bearings, etc.

• Industrial Design : - This form of design deals with improving the appeal of a
product to the human senses, especially its visual appeal
- consideration of how the human user can best interface
with the product
- it is a vital aspect of many kinds of design
 Engineering Design Process
A design process is a systematic problem-solving strategy, with criteria and
constraints, used to develop many possible solutions to solve or satisfy human needs or
wants and to narrow down the possible solutions to one final choice.

Benefits
- Decisions made in the design process cost very little in terms of the overall product cost
but have a major effect on the cost of the product
- Product can be made without defect at a competitive cost
- Quality, cost-competitive products in the shortest time possible
 Steps in Engineering Design Process

1. Identifying problems and opportunities

2. Framing a design brief
3. Investigation and research
4. Generating alternative solutions
5. Choosing a solution
6. Developmental work
7. Modeling and prototyping
8. Testing and evaluating
9. Redesigning and improving
10. Communicating the final design
 1/2. Problem Identification & Definition
• Product development begins by determining what the needs are that a
product must meet. The goal of this activity is to completely understand
the customers’ needs and to communicate them to the design team.

• The needs of customers outside of the company are important to the

development of the product design specifications for new or improved
products. A second set of critical constituents are the internal customers,
such as a company’s own corporate management, manufacturing
personnel, the sales staff, and field service personnel must be considered.

• The aim of this activity is to create a statement that describes

what has to be accomplished to satisfy the needs of the customer. This
involves analysis of competitive products, the establishment of target
specifications, and the listing of constraints and trade-offs.
Problem Definition

1. Clarify design objectives

2. Identify constraints
3. Establish functions
4. Establish requirements
 3. Development of Possible Solutions

Research and Generate Ideas

• Conduct interviews with those affected by the problem.

• Research solutions that may already exist; identify shortcomings

and reasons why they aren’t appropriate to a given situation.

• Compile ideas and report findings to the team.

 Brainstorming

• Brainstorming is a method design teams use to generate ideas to solve

clearly defined design problems. In controlled conditions and a free-
thinking environment, teams approach a problem by such means as “How
Might We” questions. They produce a vast array of ideas and draw links
between them to find potential solutions.
• A well-functioning team achieves its objectives quickly and efficiently in an
environment that induces energy and enthusiasm.
• Generate and record ideas.
• Keep the mind alert through rapidly paced sessions.
• Develop preliminary ideas.
Characteristics of a good team member:
- Respects other team members without question
- Listens carefully to the other team members
- Participates but does not dominate
- Self-confident but not dogmatic
- Knowledgeable in his or her discipline
- Communicates effectively
-Disagrees but with good reason and in good taste
Principles of Brainstorming

• Criticism is not allowed . Any attempt to analyze, reject, or evaluate ideas is

postponed until after the brainstorming session. The idea is to create a supportive
environment for free-fl owing ideas.

• Ideas brought forth should be picked up by the other members of the team.
Individuals should focus only on the positive aspects of ideas presented by
others. The group should attempt to create chains of mutual associations that
result in a final idea that no one has generated alone. All output of a brainstorming
session is to be considered a group result.

• Participants should divulge all ideas entering their minds without any constraint.
All members of the group should agree at the outset that a seemingly
wild and unrealistic idea may contain an essential element of the ultimate
solution.

• A key objective is to provide as many ideas as possible within a relatively short

time. It is not unusual for a group to generate 20 to 30 ideas in a half hour of
brainstorming. Obviously, to achieve that output the ideas are described only
roughly and without details.
 4. Selection of Possible Solution

• Identify what the solution should do and the degree to which the solution
will be pursued.
• Identify constraints (i.e., budget and time are typical considerations).
• Consider further development of brainstorming ideas with constraints and

tradeoffs.
• Explore alternative ideas based on further knowledge and technologies.
• Review brainstormed information and answer any lingering questions.
• Narrow ideas down through a voting process, or by use of a decision
matrix.
• Decide on final idea, usually through group consensus.
 Develop a Design Proposal
• Explore the idea in greater detail with annotated sketches.
• Make critical decisions such as material types and manufacturing methods.
• Generate through computer models detailed sketches to further refine the idea.
• Produce working drawings so the idea can be built
5. Model or Prototype development
• A prototype is an early sample, model, or release of a product built to test a
concept or process. It is a term used in a variety of contexts, including semantics,
design, electronics, and software programming. A prototype is generally used
to evaluate a new design to enhance precision by system analysts and users.
• A prototype can range from a detailed drawing with pen and paper to a fully
working version of the product. Therefore, prototype development is simply a
series of processes that the manufacturer uses to produce the prototype.
• Make models to help communicate the idea, and study aspects such as shape,
form, fit, or texture.
• Construct a prototype from the working drawings, so the solution can be tested.
 6. Testing of Prototypes
• Prototypes are often used in the final, testing phase in a Design
Thinking process in order to determine how users behave with
the prototype, to reveal new solutions to problems, or to find
out whether or not the implemented solutions have been
successful.
• Design experiments and test the prototype in controlled and
working environments.
• Gather performance data; analyze and check results against
established criteria.
• Conduct a formal critique to flesh out areas of concerns,
identify shortcomings, and establish any need for redesign
work.
 Refine the Design

• Make design changes; modify or rebuild the prototype.

• Make refinements until accuracy and repeatability of the prototype’s
performance results are consistent.
• Update documentation to reflect changes.
• Receive user’s critique to provide outside perspective to help determine if
established criteria have been met.
7. Communicate Processes and Results
• Communicate the designer’s final solution through media
such as PowerPoint, poster session, technical report.
• Market the Product.
• Distribute.
 Product Design
•Product design deals with the conversion of ideas into reality and aims at fulfilling the

human needs.

•Product design is defined as, "the set of activities required to bring a new product
concept or service to a state of market readiness.”

•This set of activities includes

1. Initial inspiration of new product vision.
2. Business and technological feasibility study.
3. Engineering design of the product.
4. Evaluation or validation of the product design.
5. Planning of manufacturing processes of the product.
6. Planning for the distribution of the product into the market.
7. Planning for the use of the product by the consumer.
8. Planning for retirement of the product.
 Key Factors for Success of Product
• The quality, performance, and price of the
product.
• The cost to manufacture the product over its
life cycle.
• The cost of product development.
• The time needed to bring the product to the
market.
 Product Development Process
• Idea Generation
This stage involves creating a large pool of ideas from both internal and external sources
using numerous techniques.
Internal Sources – R & D Dept. (experts with the sole responsibility to conduct market
research and analysis and generate new ideas), Employees, etc.
External Sources – Customers, Distributors, Competitors, Consultants, etc

• Idea Screening
This stage involves evaluating the pool and drop as many ideas as possible from
consideration.
Parameters for evaluating the ideas
Compatibility: Compatibility of the idea(s) with the overall business objectives.
Relevance: Relevance of the ideas based on the current and predicted business
environment and the organisation’s goals.
Assumptions: Validity of the assumptions the idea is based on.
Constraints: Internal and external constraints that hinder the growth of the idea into
reality.
Feasibility: Feasibility of the idea according to the resources available.
Value: The idea’s predicted return on investment.
Risks: Internal or external risks that may hinder the idea’s progress.
• Concept Development and Testing
The concept is a presentable version of the product idea which takes into consideration –
- Potential target audience
- Product usage
-Potential value propositions
Once the concept is developed, it is tested using several methods and processes like –
Concept-test surveys: The planned target audience is asked to answer some product-
related questions. These answers are further analyzed to test the viability of the concept.
Prototype: A prototype is developed to understand the viability of the product better.

• Marketing Strategy Development

The marketing strategy is divided into three parts:
- The detailed description of the target market’s size structure and behaviours, the planned

value proposition, the product positioning strategy, and sales size, market share and profit
goals for the first few years.
- An outline of the pricing strategy, distribution strategy, and the required marketing budget

for the first year.

- The marketing mix strategy and the planned long-term sales and profit goals.
• Business Analysis
This step of the new product development process involves a review and analysis of the
sales, costs, and profit projections for the new product. In simple terms, this step
evaluates the product as a business by reviewing –
- Costs involved in producing, marketing, and selling.
- Projected sales
-Projected profits
The analysis is done either by conducting market surveys, consulting experts, or by
analyzing the history of similar products.

• Product Development
Up to this point, the product only existed as a word description, a drawing, or a
prototype. But once the business analysis clears the product, the work is handed over to
the research and development department for actual product development.
It may take days, weeks, or months to develop the final product as the product goes
through a series of testing phases (alpha testing and beta testing) to validate all the
assumptions and incorporate everything that was promised during the previous stages.
• Market Testing
At this stage the product is released in a selected market segment as a pilot for testing.
This step involves the company to test both the final product and its entire marketing and
branding strategy, including
- Positioning Strategy,
- Pricing Strategy,
- Communication strategy,
- Promotion strategy, and
-Distribution strategy.
The product is developed in full scale only after test marketing shows positive results.

• Commercialization
Test marketing provides the management with the information needed to make the final
decision about the product launch. Once the final decision is made and the product is
decided to be launched in the market, the new product goes into the final stage -
commercialization or introduction, and is finally produced in the needed quantity.
This stage involves the highest costs as
- Manufacturing units are leased or purchased
- Advertising and communication campaigns are executed
- Sales promotion and other marketing efforts are executed to develop an initial demand
 Design for Manufacturing
• Design for manufacturing (DFM) is a development practice
emphasizing manufacturing issues throughout the product
development process.
• Successful DFM results in lower production cost without
sacrificing product quality.
• Integration of designing and manufacturing
- Design for Manufacturing is the process of
designing parts, components or products for
ease of manufacturing with an end goal of
making a better product at a lower cost. This
is done by simplifying, optimizing and refining
the product design.

Objectives of DFM
• Reduce component costs
• Reduce assembly cost
• Reduce production support costs
Understanding Manufacturing Costs
Reduce the costs of components
Identify process constraints and cost drivers
Redesign components to eliminate processing steps
Choose the appropriate economic scale for the part process
Standardize components and their processes
Adhere the black-box component

Reduce the costs of assembly

Integrate parts
Maximize ease of assembly
Consider customer assembly (do-it-yourself) technology driven products

Reduce the costs of supporting production

Minimize systematic complexity (such as plastic injection modeling for one step of
making a complex product)
Error proofing (anticipate possible failure modes in the production system and take
appropriate corrective actions early in the development process)
 General Guidelines of DFM
1. Minimize total number of parts
- Reduces cost of the product and increases reliability of product
- This can be achieved by combining two or more parts during design, using snap/
press fit to replace / reduce fasteners

2. Minimize variety of parts

- Reduces the manufacturing cost and inventory, improves quality of parts

3. Use Standard Parts

- Standard parts are less expensive than custom made parts

4. Design Parts to be multifunctional

- Parts should be designed to satisfy more than one functional requirement
- e.g. Part can be designed to serve as structural member as well as spring
5. Design Parts for Multiple Use
- Parts should be designed such that they can be used in more than one product
e.g. same shaft and gear assembly can be used in multiple products

6. Select Least Costly Material

- Least costly material which satisfies the functional requirements should be selected
- 50-60% of the total product cost is associated with materials

7. Design Parts for Ease of Manufacture

- The manufacturing process should be selected such that minimum number of
economical operations are required to give the part a final shape.
- Finishing operations such that grinding, lapping, etc should be avoided wherever
possible.

8. Shape the parts to minimize operations

- Parts should be shaped such that they can be produced with minimum number of
operations

9. Design for General Purpose Tooling

- Parts should be designed to use general purpose tooling rather than special
purpose tooling.
- Special purpose tooling is beneficial in case of mass production
10. Use Modular designs
- A module is a self contained component with a standard interface with other
components in the product
- This customizes the product by using different combinations of standard modules
- Relatively resistant to obsolescence, as new generation product can utilize most of
the old modules
- Easier service and repair
- Simplify final assembly
- Products with 4-8 modules with 4-10 parts per module are preferred
 Aesthetic Design
- concerned with beauty or the appreciation of beauty.
- Aesthetics is a core design principle that defines a design's
pleasing qualities.
 Selection of a Product

Selection Parameters
- Performance
- Durability
- Initial and running cost In case of multiple available
- Comfort choices selection is based on
- Service Most Appealing One
- Efficiency

Aesthetics : Set of principles of appreciation of beauty

Aesthetic design is influencing how people think and feel. Aesthetic design affects long-
term attitude about products. Aesthetic design matters not only to make the first
impression, but also to keep strengthening the bond with the user.
 Guidelines in Aesthetic Design

• The appearance should contribute to the performance of the product e.g. the
aerodynamic shape of a automobile will decrease air resistance results in improve fuel
economy by decreasing fuel consumption.

• The appearance should reflect the function of the product e.g. the aerodynamic shape
of car indicate the speed.

• The appearance should reflect the quality of the product.

• The appearance should not be at too much of extra cost unless it is the prime
requirement.

• The appearance should be suitable to the environment in which the product is used.

• The appearance should be achieved by the effective and economical use of the
material.
 Aspects of Aesthetic Design

1. Shape (form)
2. Colour
3. Variety
4. Style
5. Continuity
6. Contrast
7. Symmetry and balance
8. Material and surface finish
9. Tolerance
1. Shape
Step
Suitable for stationary structures
Taper

Shear : Suitable for free standing engineering structures

Sculpture and streamline : Mobile Products
2. Symmetry and Balance

- Most of the natural creations are symmetric at least about one axis
- Try to incorporate symmetry in product during design
- In case symmetry is not possible to achieve, balance in the product improves the look
e.g. Arrangement of keys on keyboard
3. Proportion
- Relationship in terms of size and color of connecting items
4. Continuity
- In shape (keyboard) and color

5. Variety
- Variety in product range so that customer requirements can be satisfied e.g. Fridge

volumes
- Variety with colors and shapes

*Continuity with Variety*

6. Impression and Purpose

- Product should look as if it will work

- It should give impression of the satisfactory performance (purpose)
- e.g. Taper shape gives impression of strength and stability
7. Color
- Major contributor for aesthetic appeal
- Colors are linked with different moods and considerations
- Selection of color should be compatible with the conventions
8. Contrast

- With color and shape

9. Material and surface finish

•The material and surface finish of the product contribute significantly to the appearance.
•The production of smooth and harder surface is necessary for greater strength and
bearing load is depend upon the property of material e.g. the material like stainless steel
gives better appearance than the cast iron, plain carbon steel or low alloy steel.
•It was found that the bearing properties, wear qualities and fatigue life of any machine
component have a directly related to surface texture.
•Hence to increase the life of any machine component subjected to various types of load
the working and non working surfaces must be very good finish.
•The component or the product with better surface finish are always aesthetically
pleasing.
•The surface coating processes like spray painting, electroplating, anodizing etc. greatly
enhance the aesthetic appeals of the product.
 Ergonomic Considerations
Ergonomics Deals with
Relationship between man and machine and the application of anatomical, Physiological
and Psychological principles to solve the problems arising from man and machine
relationship

Ergon : Work Nomos : Natural laws

• The main objective of the ergonomics is to make machine fit for the user rather than to
make the user adapt himself to the machine.
• It aims to decreases the physical and mental stresses of the users.

Areas under consideration

- Man Machine communication
- Work environment
- Human anatomy and posture
- Energy expenditure in hand and foot operations
 Man Machine Relationship

Displays provide operators with information about the operational status of

systems, and control devices allow the operators to take action to influence
the state of systems.

Displays : Devices through man receives information

Controls :
Large force – Levers , hand wheels, etc
Small force – Push buttons, knobs, etc
• From display instruments, the operator can get the information
about the operation of machine.
• If he feels that the correction is necessary then he take the
corrective action to operate the control or lever.
• This corrective action of man alter the performance of the
machine.
• Which will be indicated on display panel.
• The contact of man machine system in a closed loop system
arise at two places – information display instrument which
gives information to the man and control which will operate by

man to adjust the machine.

 Types of Displays

1. Quantitative displays

Moving Pointer Moving Scale Digital

General Recommendations
-Scale should be divided in suitable numerical progression
- Number of subdivisions between numbered digits should be less
- Letter size
H = (Reading distance / 200)
-Vertical figures for stationary dials
- Radially oriented figures for rotating dials
- Pointer should have knife edge with mirror in background to avoid parallax error
2. Qualitative displays

-Only display state or condition

- Performance can be improved using flash light or warning sound
e.g. Traffic Signals
 Controls
Design of Equipment for Control
• The communication system consist of the control equipment of devices.

• The type and size of the control devices selected depends upon the following number
of factors, the principle ones are

1. The required speed of operation.

2. The required accuracy of the control.
3. The required operating force.
4. The direction of movement for on/off or increase/decrease.
5. The required range.

Control Elements Design Considerations

- Should be easily accessible and logically positioned

- Operation should involve minimum movement
- Shape of the control equipment should be in conformity with human anatomy
- Proper color codes
Types of Controls

[Link] wheel –
Torque corresponding to tangential force as 300 to 400 N if the rim of the wheel grasped
firmly by both hands.

2. Small Crank –
Can be operated at high speeds with load of the order of 10 to 20 N, maximum speed of
crank 200 rpm, handle length 40 mm and grip diameter 10 mm
3. Round knob –
Be operated by hand.
Diameter – 10 mm to 150 mm max. suitable
Diameter – 50 mm , torque – 25 Nm

4. Joysticks –
It is a lever with two degree of freedom and used to control two independent variable
simultaneously e.g. gear box operating lever of automobile and selector switches.
5. Push buttons –
These are used for controlling two state parameters and can be biased to return to the
un-operated condition when not presses (car horn) or may require second pressure to
release them (T.V. on/off switch).
Design Considerations for Control Units
• The control should be easily accessible and logically positioned.

• The control operation should involve minimum motion and avoid awkward movements.

• The shape of the control component which come in contact with the hands should be in

conformity with the anatomy of human hands.

• Proper colour produces beneficial psychological effect. The control should be painted in
red colour with the gray background of machine tool to call for attention.
 2. Layout / Workplace Design
• Workplace design refers to the process of designing and organizing a workplace to
optimize worker performance and safety. It is an important health and safety issue
for workers in both high-risk environments (such as construction sites) and low-
risk workplaces (such as offices).

Factors to be considered
- Sequence of Operations
- Functional Grouping
- Frequency of use
- Ease of Identification
Examples
 3. Working Environment
• Light
- Working in dim or overbright work environments can result in eyestrain, headaches,
irritability and, inevitably, reduced productivity.
-Light sources, including the sun, can create unwanted reflections, glare and shadows
in the workplace that can cause discomfort and distraction, and can interfere with the

performance of visual tasks.

- Low levels of lighting can cause depression, which for some people may be severe.
- Standard industrial norms should be followed

• Noise
-Standard industrial norms should be followed
- Excessive exposure to loud noise can irreversibly damage the ear, resulting in noise-
induced hearing loss.
-‘Nuisance’ noise can be annoying and distracting and result in reduced job
performance and satisfaction.
- Noise may also be unsafe if it impairs communication in the work environment, such
as by overpowering auditory alarms.
- It can be reduced by proper maintenance, isolators and use of silencers
• Temperature
- Proper temperature results in enhanced work efficiency
- For an operator to perform the task efficiently, he should neither feel hot or cold.
- When the heavy work is done, the temperature should be relatively lower and when the

light work is done, the temperature should be relatively higher.

• Humidity and Air circulation

- Humidity has little effect on the efficiency of the operator at ordinary temperatures.
- However, at high temperatures, it affects significantly the efficiency of the operator.
-The proper air circulation is necessary to minimize the effect of high temperature and
humidity.

• Vibrations
- Whole body vibration, e.g. from riding a mower, can affect comfort and performance
even at low levels and can cause damage to the spine, stomach pain and gastrointestinal
complaints.
- Hand-arm vibration, such as from hand tools, can have negative effects on muscles and
the skeleton, and can contribute to carpal tunnel syndrome, low-back pain and vibration
white finger
 4. Human anatomy and posture

Anthropometric Data

Anthropometry, is the branch of the human science that studies the physical
measurement of the human body, particularly size and shape. ... One
application of anthropometrical measurement in ergonomics is the design of
working space and the development of industrialized products such as
furnishing, cars, tools, etc.

Anthropometry plays an important role in industrial design, clothing design,

ergonomics and architecture where statistical data about the distribution of
body dimensions in the population are used to optimize products.

Anthropometrics is the practice of taking measurements of the human

body and provides categorised data that can be used by designers.
Anthropometrics help designers collect useful data, e.g. head circumferences
when designing a safety helmet.
Examples of Anthropometric Data
Design of a Table Chair system for Office Work