METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS

Automatic weather Station

METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS
• STANDARD RAINGAUGE
• This instrument is also known as the ‘Non-recording’ or ‘Totalizing’ rain
Gauge.
• This instrument is used to measure the amount of liquid precipitation
reaching the ground in a stated time period.

• The instrument consists of a funnel of a special design, supported upon

an outer cylindrical can, partly sunk in the ground.

• The funnel has a horizontal circular aperture of known diameter (5

inches, for the standard rain gauge).
 Standard Rain gauge ……………………..
• The funnel mouth is cut bevel so that only rain drops that fall into
mouth are accounted for.
• Precipitation that falls into the funnel is collected in a receiver placed
insider the outer vessel.
• The capacity of the receiver is sufficient for most occasions but if it
overflows, the can retains the surplus.
• At regular intervals (usually at 0600 GMT, i.e. 0900 hours EAST African
Time), the amount of precipitation is measured
• It is assumed that the amount collected per unit area of funnel
aperture is the same as that which falls on a unit of area surrounding
the station
• Note: The size of the aperture is not important, however, whatever
size is chosen, and the graduation of the measuring apparatus must
be consistent with it.
• The amount of rainfall is measured by pouring the water into a
measuring cylinder which is graduated in mm, and the readings are
recorded (see schematic diagrams of the measuring jars).
• In most cases, the graduation should permit the reading of 0.1 mm
Measuring jar
EXPOSURE OF THE RAIN GAUGE
• The rain gauge should be installed over level ground, with objects not
closer than four times their height.
• Local acceleration of the wind above the collecting aperture of the
instrument should be avoided and if possible the wind speed should
be reduced by a shelter of low vegetation planted at a distance from
the instrument
Effect of wind is two-fold:

• Effects on the instrument itself, thus reducing the amount of water

collected.
• Effects of the site on the air trajectory. These effects are frequently
more important and eddies developing in the air flow may reduce the
precipitation in one place and increase it in another.
• As a result, the reading may be either too high or too low.
 SOURCES ERROR
• Inaccurately graduated measuring cylinders

• Improper measuring practices, e.g. Measuring cylinders held in a non-

vertical way: wrong reading on the meniscus

• Effect of wind on precipitation

• Effect of evaporation on the collected precipitation

• Wetting of the gauge walls (this error is most pronounced with light
rains)
THE TILTING SIPHON RAIN GAUGE

• The Tilting Siphon Rainfall Recorded is manufactured to British Met

Office drawings.
• It produces a record of rainfall against time. It records on a chart the
time of onset and cessation of rainfall, the intensity of the rain at any
time, rainfall amount and duration as well as the character of the rain.
• The automatic tilting action ensures unlimited collecting capacity. It is
frequently used in conjunction with a daily rain gauge to provide a
permanent record of the start and end of rainfall, together with
variations in intensive.
• The movement of a float in the collecting chamber causes a pen to
mark a daily or weekly chart, which is viewed through the hinged
front window.
• When 25 mm of rain has fallen-represented on the chart by a linear
distance of 50 mm-the pen is at the top of the chart and the chamber
tilts and empties.
• The pen then returns to the bottom of the chart to start recording
again.
• The Gauge is constructed from non- ferrous materials and supplied
with a hand- wound clock.
• The rain recorder has a funnel, float chamber containing a light
hollow metal, pen, chart and a drum with some clock work. The chart
is wrapped around the drum.
• . The rain is led into a float chamber containing a light metal through
the funnel.
• The capacity of the chamber is 25 mm. As the water level rises, the
vertical movement of the float is transmitted by a suitable mechanism
into the movement of the pen on the chart.
• When the chamber is full, it tilts until it becomes empty and the pen
returns to the bottom of the chart to start a fresh recording of the
rain.
• When it is not raining, the pen traces a straight horizontal line on the
rainfall chart.
• Rain falling during the siphoning process is not recorded.
• However, since siphoning is fast, the loss is usually insignificant
compared to the advantages this system offers.
THE TILTING SIPHON RAIN
GAUGE
THE TILTING SIPHON RAIN
GAUGE
 THE STEVENSON SCREEEN (ALSO KNOWN AS THE COTTON
REGION SHELTER (CRS) IN USA)
• A Stevenson screen (with ‘Stevenson’ sometimes written as
‘Stephenson’) or instrument shelter is an enclosure to shield
meteorological instruments against precipitation and direct heat
radiation from outside sources, while still allowing air to circulate
freely around them.
• It forms part of a standard weather station.
• The Stevenson screen holds instruments that may include
thermometers (ordinary, maximum/minimum), a hygrometer, a
psychomotor, a dewcell, a barometer and a thermograph
• Stevenson screens may also be known as a cotton region shelter, an
instrument shelter, a thermometer shelter, a thermo- screen or a
thermometer screen.
• Its purpose is to provide a standardized environment in which to
measure temperature, humidity, dew point, vapour pressure and
atmospheric pressure
 History
• It was designed by Thomas Stevenson (1818-1887), a British civil engineer
and father of the author Robert Louis Stevenson.
• Stevenson’s development of his small thermometer screen with double
louvered walls on all sides and no floor was reported in 1864. After
comparisons with other screens in the UK, Stevenson’s original design was
modified.
• The modifications by Mawley of the Royal Meteorological society in 1864
included a double roof, a floor with slanted boards, and a modification of
the double louvers.
• This design was adopted by the British Meteorological Office and
eventually other national services such as Canada.
• The national services developed their own variations such as the single
louvered cotton Region design in the United States.
• The traditional Stevenson screen is a box shape, constructed of wood,
in a double louvered design, However, it is possible to construct a
screen using other materials and shapes, such as a pyramid.
• The world Meteorological Organization (WMO) agreed standard for
the height of the thermometers is between 1.25 m (4ft 1 in) and 2 m
(6 ft 7 in) above the ground.
 Size
• The interior size of the screen will depend on the number of instruments that
are to be used.
• A single screen may measure 76.5 by 61 by 59.3 centimeters (30.1 by 23.3 in)
and a double screen 76.5 by 105 by 59.3 centimeters (30.1 by 41.3 by 23.3 in)
the unit is either supported by four metal or wooden legs or a wooden post.
• The legs must be tightly secured into the ground to avoid vibration of the unit.
• The top of the screen was originally composed of two asbestos boards with an
air space between them.
• These asbestos boards have generally been replaced by a laminate for health
and safety reasons.
• The whole screen is painted with several coasts of while to reflect sunlight
radiation and usually require repainting every two years.
 Siting
• The siting of the screen is very importance to avoid data degradation
by the effects of ground cover, buildings and trees: WMO 2010
recommendations, if incomplete, are a sound basis.
• In addition the screen should be placed at least four times the
distance of the height of the object, e.g., 20 m from any tree that is 5
m high.
• The screen should also be sited at least 100 m from any tree that is 5
m high.
• The screen should also be sited at least 100 m from paved roads to
avoid vibration.
• The screen has two doors, one facing true north and the other facing
true south. This is because the sun moves from north to south and
from south to north.
• The instruments in the Stevenson Screen are therefore positioned in
the South (hence the south door is used) when sun is in the northern
hemisphere and vice versa.
• In Polar Regions with twenty- four sunlight the observer must take
care to shield the thermometers from the sun and at the same time
avoid a rise in temperature being caused by the observer’s body heat.
 Maintenance
• Maintenance is minimal for the most part.
• The screen should be kept clean with a good quality semi-gloss white
painted surface at least one every two years, preferably once a year.
• Be certain the inside is kept clean and free of insect nests and
cobwebs once a month.
• Always check to metal support to be certain all bolts and screws are
tight.
• Check for damaged legs and louvers and replace them regularly.
INSTRUMENTS KEPT IN THE STEVENSON SCREEN AT THE
TANZANIA METEOROLOGICAL AGENCY MOROGORO
CONVENTIONAL WEATHER STATION

1. Dry bulb Thermometer

2. Wet Bulb Thermometer
3. Maximum Thermometer
4. Minimum Thermometer
5. Thermohygrograph Machine
6. Piche Evaporimeter
STEVENSON SCREEN
STEVENSON SCREEN
4. Maximum & Minimum
thermometers
• The basic instruments in the Stevenson Screen are the liquid-glass
maximum and minimum thermometers.
• These are mounted on a temperature support, called a Townsend
support that permits resetting of both thermometers without
removing them from the shelter.
• The minimum thermometer is mounted in the Townsend support and
can be tilted to approximately ninety degrees.
• The Minimum thermometer includes a small weighted, dumb-bell
shaped index which is installed in the bore of the thermometer. As
the temperature decreases, the meniscus of the alcohol column
forces the index down to the lowest temperature.
• As the alcohol rises, the index remains at the lowest point which is
the minimum temperature for the period.
• At reset time, the bulb end is raised to a vertical position (bulb up),
allowing the index to slide to the top of the alcohol column again. The
bulb end is then lowered to back to the observation position
• The Maximum thermometer is constructed with a constriction just above the
bulb end.
• As the temperature rises, liquid is forced through this tiny opening into the
thermometer tube.
• When the temperature decreases the constriction prevents the liquid from
being drawn back into the bulb. As a result the liquid will move up the column
to indicate the highest temperature and will remain at this level until reset.
• The thermometer is reset by unlocking the Townsend support and spinning
the thermometer until the liquid returns to a position to indicate a
temperature which is equal to the current temperature read from the
minimum thermometer.
 OPERATION
• To properly read the maximum thermometer, unlock and carefully lower (bulb down)
the thermometer. The maximum temperature is read at the top of the mercury column.
• Spin the thermometer until the reading agrees (within one degree) with current
temperature indicated by the minimum thermometer.
• When the two thermometers differ by more than one degree the thermometers need
to be replaced with a set that are within standards.
• The minimum thermometer is read in its “rest” position which is nearly horizontal-
slightly bulb high.
• The At observation temperature is determined by reacting the value at the top of the
liquid column. The minimum temperature is the value opposite the TOP of the index.
• To reset the thermometer invert the minimum thermometer (bulb up) until the index
slides to the end of the alcohol column. Return thermometer to its nearly horizontal
position.
 MAINTENANCE
• The Townsend support must be kept cleaned and lubricated in allow
the spinning of the maximum thermometer which would force the
liquid past the constriction, back into the bulb.
• Simply remove the thermometer from the mounting bracket and
remove the spindle from the shaft.
• Clean the spindle and lubricate with either a light oil or an all
temperature grease and then replace. If this is done each visit, the
observer will have no problems restting the maximum thermometer.
• A drop or two of oil on the bracket pivot of the minimum
thermometer will aid in resetting the minimum as well.
• The etching on the thermometers may fade with time.
• This can be corrected by applying either black china ink to the
etchings or rubbing the etchings with a black grease pencil.
• Once either has been applies, clean the thermometer with a dry
towel to remove any excess material.
5. WET BULB/DRY THERMOMETERS
DESCREIPTION:
• These are ordinary Hg- in glass thermometers whose combination
forms the most common humidity- measuring device- the
hygrometer.
• The bulb of the wet Bulb Thermometer is covered with muslin cloth
(wick) constantly moistened from a water reservoir. The reservoir is
filled with distilled water.
• The difference between the reading of wet Bulb and the dry Bulb
thermometers helps to derive other parameters such as Dew point
(Dp), vapour pressure (VP) and relative Humidity (RH).
• Normally the wet Bulb temperature is lower than the Dry Bulb one.
• The Dry Bulb, Wet Bulb and Dew Point temperatures are important
to determine the state of humid air.
• The knowledge of only two of these values is enough to determine
the state-including the content of water vapor and the sensible and
latent energy (enthalpy).
 Dry Bulb Temperature –Tdb

• The Dry Bulb temperature, usually referred to as air temperature, is

the air property that is most commonly used.
• When people refer to the temperature of the air, they are normally
referring to its dry bulb temperature.
•
• The Dry Bulb Temperature refers basically to the ambient air
temperature.
• It is called ”Dry Bulb” because temperature is indicated by a
thermometer whose bulb is not affected by moisture that has been
artificially applied.
• Dry-bulb temperature – Tdb can be measured using a normal
thermometer freely exposed to the air but shielded from radiation
and moisture.
• The temperature is usually given in degrees Celsius (oC) or degrees
Fahrenheit (oF). The SI unit is Kelvin (K). Zero Kelvin is equal to -273 0c.
• Dry-bulb temperature is an indicator of heat content and is shown
along the bottom axis of the psychrometric chart.
• Constant dry bulb temperatures appear as vertical lines in the
psychrometric chart.
 Wet bulb temperature - Twb
• The wet bulb temperature is the temperature of adiabatic saturation.
This is the temperature indicated by a moistened thermometer bulb
exposed to the air flow.
• We bulb temperature can be measured using a thermometer with the
bulb wrapped in wet muslin.
• The adiabatic evaporation of water from the thermometer and the
cooling effect is indicated by a “wet bulb temperature” lower than
“dry bulb temperature” in the air.
• The wet bulb temperature is always lower than the dry bulb
temperature but will be identical with 100% relative humidity (the air
is at the saturation line)
 Dew point temperature –Tdp
• The Dew point is the temperature at which water vapour starts to
condense out of the air (the temperature at which air becomes
completely saturated).
• Above this temperature the moisture will stay in the air.
• If the dew-point temperature is close to the dry air temperature –the
relative humidity is high
• If the dew point is well below the dry air temperature – the relative
humidity is low
• If moisture condenses on a cold bottle taken from the refrigerator, the
dew-point temperature of the air is above the temperature in the
refrigerator.
 THE THERMOGRAPH/THERMOHYGROGRAPH

• GENERAL DESCRIPTION
• The thermograph is a single pen temperature recording device. The
thermohygrograph is a dual pen recorder that records both the
temperature and the relative humidity.
• Both instruments are totally self contained and consist of a
measuring system, a rotating drum with a clock, and a pen to record
the data on a paper chart which is wrapped around the drum.
• The thermograph uses either a liquid filled bourdon tube or a
bimetallic strip to monitor the temperature.
• The bimetallic strip will bend as the temperature changes since the
two metals do not react identically to the temperature changes.
• The bourdon tube will flex as the liquid inside the tube expands or
contracts with the temperature changes.
• This bending or flexing is transferred to the pen which then records
the movement onto the chart as a temperature change.
• The Thermohygrograph uses a similar temperature system and also
includes strands of hair to monitor the humidity.
• As the humidity increases the hairs will stretch and as the humidity
decreases the hairs will contract.
• This varying length of the hairs is transferred to a pen which records
the movement on the chart as a humidity change.
 INSTALLATION
• The thermograph and the Thermohygrograph are normally installed in
the Stevenson Screen.
• The unit must be placed in such a way to allow the free flow of air
around the sensors on the unit.
• Care must also be exercised to be certain that the location of the unit
does not interfere with the resetting of the Maximum and Minimum
thermometers as well as the Wet Bulb and Dry Bulb thermometers if
they are installed.
• The clock must have the appropriate gears to match the chart, and
the pen nib must be clean.
• The pen must also contain enough ink to operate but not be overfilled
since the excess ink will drip onto the case and damage the point.
 OPERATION
• The gauge is designed to operate for a period of time that is determined by
the gears on the clock and the drum.
• The normal setting is for one week which would use 168 gears. Be certain
that the rotation rate and the chart match each other.
• A one week rotation drum must have a chart that is graduated for a week.
• Each time the chart is changed, the clock must be wound however care
should be taken not to “over-wind” the clock.
• This will damage the mainspring and the clock will stop.
• A small amount of ink should also be added to the pen at each chart change.
This is also a good time to compare the recorded temperature on the chart
with a quality thermometer to be certain that they agree within 2 degrees.
• If the difference is more than two degrees, the knurled thumbnut should be
adjusted to remove approximately half of the difference.
 MAINTENANCE
• Since there are no rapidly moving parts, no scheduled lubrication is
required.
• The gauge should be tested to be certain that all parts move freely and
the case is clean.
• The pen should be cleaned regularly and checked to be certain that a
fine trace is being recorded. Also be certain that excess ink is not
dripping onto the case.
• If the readings do not appear to be accurate, compare with a good
quality thermometer and make adjustments with the knurled thumb
nuts mounted on the element support brackets of the gauge.
• If the bourdon tube leaks, do not attempt to patch it as it is filled with a
flammable hydrocarbon. The tube must be replaced.
• The humidity can be checked by comparing the humidity value calculated for a
sling psychrometer against the value on the chart.
• If the error is excessive, the humidity calibration can be checked by wetting the
hairs with distilled water until they become saturated.
• This will cause the reading to be between 95 and 100 percent. If not, the span
can be adjusted by sliding the link at the top of the hairs to adjust the span.
• One the hairs have dried, adjust the thumbnut to adjust the reading to remove
approximately half the error.
• Repeat this process until the data recorded on the chart is reasonably accurate.
• Since the humidity data until the data is not used by the cooperative program,
any adjustment to the humidity sensor and readings should be minimal.
The Piche evaporimeter
• The Piche evaporimeter is an atmometer, a simple instrument well known to observers of the
weather all over the world. Usually placed inside a Stevenson screen it does what it says-it
measures evaporation.
• Like the lysimeter, or evaporation pan, it measures the amount of water lost to the atmosphere
usually over a period of one day.
• Evaporation takes place from a 3 cm diameter circle of blotting paper (filter paper) held in place
at the bottom of a calibrated (laboratory burette –or pipette-type) glass tube by a metal clip.
• The outside diameter of the tube is nominally 1.5 cm as is the base of the retaining clip. Water,
preferably de-ionized (distilled), keeps the paper constantly wet.
• Water is evaporated from both the upper and lower surface of the filter paper, and the surface
area works out as 11cm sq. cm (11 cm2).
• The tube is calibrated in millilitres (ml), or cubic centimeters (cm 3), like a laboratory burette, or
pipette, and evaporation totals are reported as cm3.
Daily routine of observation

• Each day, usually at 09 GMT in the UK, the water level in the tube is
recorded. Read the bottom of the meniscus. Evaporation in the 24-h is
therefore today’s reading minus yesterday’s reading.
THE GUNN BELLANI RADIOMETER

• This instrument is used to measure solar radiation, where radiation is

the process in which energy is transmitted from one body to another
by means of electromagnetic waves without the presence of necessity
or intervention of a material medium.
• Radiation from the sun is the most important energy source for the
earth’s atmospheric system so that radiation measurements are of
great value to science, industry and agriculture. There are two types
of radiation:
Types of radiation
i)Solar radiation (short wave radiation). This is the electromagnetic
radiation of the sun range 0.15 to 4.0 um. Approximately 99% of the
sun’s radiation is contained in this range of wave length.
ii) Terrestrial Radiation (long wave radiation).
• This is the radiation emitted by the earth’s surface. The short wave
radiation from the sun which is absorbed by the earth’s surface is
converted into heat energy.
• The average temperature near the surface of the earth is above 15 0c.
As a result of this, heat is absorbed by the earth’s surface. In turn, the
earth radiates it in form of long waves in the range of 4.0 to 80 um in
form of infra-red radiation.
 SOLAR RADIATION
MEASUREMENTS
• The instrument consists of a blackened hollow copper sphere sealed
to the end of a burette.
• The sphere holds 40 ml distilled water. The sphere and the burette
form a sealed system in which air pressure has been reduced to above
1/3 of the normal pressure at mean sea level.
• When incident solar radiation falls on the sphere, it is absorbed and
raises the temperature of the water contained in the sphere quickly to
boiling point, which is about 70 0c under the reduced pressure.
• Then vapour flows along the burette tube sides and condenses at the
end of the burette.
• The amount of water transferred by distillation at any given period is
a measure of the amount of radiation received by using the formulae.
• Radiation in calories/cm2/day = 22.28D + 51.8
• Radiation in MJ m-2 = Rx4.187x10-3

Where: D is the distillation, in ml, and R is Radiation in

calories/cm2/day
 EXPOSURE

• The instrument has to be exposed in an open place where the sun

and skies are visible throughout the year
• No obstacle should subtend an angle of more than 5 degree within
the sector NE to SE and SW to NW. Obstacles to the other two sectors
should be as low as possible
• Care must be taken that the shadows of other instruments within the
enclosure do not fall across the radiometer at any time
 EVAPORATION
• The evaporation is a measurement that combines or intergrates the
effects of several climate elements; temperature, humidity, rain fall,
drought dispersion, solar radiation, and wind.
• Evaporation is greatest on hot, windy, dry, sunny days, and is greatly
reduced when clouds block the sun and when air is cool, calm, and
humid.
• Pan evaporation measurements enable farmers and ranchers to
understand how much water their crops will need.
 Evaporation pan

• An evaporation pan is used to hold water during observations for the

determination of the quantity of evaporation at a given location.
• Such pans are of varying sizes and shapes, she most commonly used
being circular or square.
• The best known of the pans are the ‘class A’ evaporation pan and the
“sunken Colorado pan” In Europe, India and south Africa, a symon’s
pan (also known as symon’s Tank) is used.
• Often the evaporation pans are automated with water level sensors
and a small weather station is located nearby
Evaporation pan
 Standard methods

• A variety of evaporation pans are used throughout the world. There are
formulas for converting from one type of pan to another and to measures
representative of the environment.
• Also, research has been done about the installation practices of evaporation
pans so that they can make more reliable and repeatable measurements
• Class A evaporation pan
• The class A (standard) evaporation pan, is a cylinder with a diameter of
47.5 in (4ft or 120.7 cm) that has a depth of 10 in (25cm). The datum level is
indicated by the top of a hook mounted within a stilling pool, which cuts
down wave action and makes it easier to determine datum level.
• The pan rests on a carefully leveled, wooden base of cedar wood each
4 feet 6 inches long and 4 inches by 4 inches in cross section.
• This facilitates maintenance and is very convenient for monitoring
leakage. It is normally installed close to a standard rain gauge.
• The interior must be painted with black bitumen paint to absorb as
much as possible incoming radiation.
• The exterior together with the chain link fence used to prevent
animals drinking from the pan are painted with aluminum in order to
minimize radioactive loss
• The site where the pan is installed should be open on all sides to permit free
circulation of air, and should be fairly level with obstruction as at least four
times their height.
• Evaporation is measured daily as the depth filled to exactly two inches
(5cm)from the pan top. At the end of 24 hour, the amount of water to refill the
pan (or to remove the water, if it rained) to exactly two inches from its top is
measured.
• If precipitation occurs in the 24-hour period, it is taken into account in
calculating the evaporation.
• Sometimes precipitation is greater than evaporation, and measured increments
of water must be dipped from the pan. Evaporation cannot be measured in a
class A pan when pan’s water surface if frozen
CALCULATION OF EVAPORATION
• Evaporation is a physical process whereby water from a wet surface or free
water body is brought into the air the form of a water vapour.
• Evaporation is conveniently measured in the same unit as rainfall depth each
day at 0600h GMT, i.e 0900h EAT. To determine evaporation for the past 24
hours.
• The water in the pan is brought to datum
• If rainfall depth in the past 24h has been less than the depth of lost through
evaporation, water must be added.
• If rainfall has been greater than evaporation, water must be taken out.
• To measure the amount added or taken out, a cup of standard volume is used.
Such a cup, when full, it measures 0.5 mm (i.e its volume in mm 3 divided by its
area in m2 gives a depth of 0.5mm over the surface of the evaporation pan)
• The evaporation equation is: ER±0.5N,R= Rainfall, mm and N= number
of full cups added (+) or taken out (-)
• If N full cups Are to added into the pan, then E>R, and E=R+0.5N.
• If N full cups are to taken out of the pan, then R= E, and E=R, and E=R-
0.5N.
CAUSES INACCURACIES
• When where heavy rainstorm or hail, water is lost from the pan by
splash this will lead into over estimation of evaporation, hence such
an occasion must be recorded.
• The amount of rain may be large enough to cover the pan and
overflow. An unknown amount of water is lost and accounted for. A
not to this effect is deemed necessary.
• Inaccuracy can also result from muddy water in the pan and leakage.
Maintain the pan, clean and refill it regularly, say once a moth or even
at closer intervals. Also carry out regular inspection for leaks.
GENERAL SOURCES OF ERROR AND SUGGESTIONS FOR REMEDIES
• Rust and sediments that lead into a change in colour of the pan walls:
Remove rust and sediments; repaint and clean the pan regularly.
• Water loss due to birds and other animals that drink from openings in the
pan: Fence out the enclosure with a door, use a mesh to cover the pan and
plug any holes that may appear after long use
• Unaccounted for rainfall: Note and report this. If a loss is anticipated, it is to
the interest of science not to take any measurements on the day; just reset
to datum
• Changes in temperature with a resultant increase or decrease I water level in
the pan: Ensure the inside and outside of the pan are painted with the
appropriate paint annually, where possible
• Undetected leaks: Check regularly for leaks and take remedial action as soon
as a leak is spotted. One major source of leakage is rust: prevent rust from
forming by painting the pan on a regular basis
THE CAMPBELL-STOKES SUNSHINE RECORDER
• The Campbell-stokes Recorder (some times called a stokes sphere) is a
kind of sunshine recorder. It was invented by John Francis Campbell in
1853 and modified in 1879by sir George Gabriel Stokes.
• The original design by Campbell consisted of a glass sphere set into a
wooden bowl with the sun burning a trace on the bowl.
• Stokw’s refinement was to make the housing out of metal and to have
a card holder set behind the sphere. The unit is designed to record
the hours of bright sunshine which will burn (char) a hole through the
card.
 TECHNOLOGY
• The glass sphere –typically 10 cm (4 inches) in diameter – is designed to
focus the rays from the sun onto a card mounted at the back and is set on a
stand.
• The card is held in place by grooves of which there are three overlapping
sets, to allow for the altitude of the sun during different seasons of the
year.
• In the northern hemisphere the winter card is used from 15 October to 29
February, the equinox card from 1 march to 11 April and 3 September to 14
October.
• The summer card is therefore used from 12 April to 2 September. Each card
is marked as to the hour, i.e it has division each of which represents 60
minutes, with local noon being in the centre, and is read in 10ths.
• The reverse is true for the southern hemisphere for the summer card and
winter one.
• In the northern hemisphere, the unit is set in a stand facing south to
enable the maximum amount of sun to be recorded.
• It faces north, in the southern hemisphere. It is important to place the
unit in an area where the sun will not be blocked y building, trees or
flagpoles.
• Advantages
• The major advantage of this type of recorder is its simplicity and ease
of use. There are no moving parts and it thus requires very little
maintenance. The unit can be used anywhere in the world with little
or no modification to the design.
Disadvantages
• When the sun is low in the sky it may not have enough strength to
properly burn the card and thus can only measure the amount of
bright sunshine as opposed to visible sunshine.
• This often occurs at dawn and dusk. Rain may cause the card to be
torn when removing it and thus making it difficult to read. In areas of
high frost and during periods of freezing rain the sphere may be
difficult to clean and may not be removed before the sun is shining
again.
• However, the single biggest problem is in the reading of the cards. As
the sun is covered and exposed by clouds the amount of burn on the
card may be the same for 30 seconds as for 5 minutes.
• Thus, the reading of the card may differ from one observer to
another. It is also expensive – each instrument costs around USS 2000.