EDJ362M/EDP 362: TEACHING

AND ASSESSING UPPER

PRIMARY /JHS
MATHEMATICS (ADVANCED)
Teaching Numerals Up to 1 Billion
• Primary school foundation: Basic number concepts (1- and 2-digit numbers)
• Extending knowledge to 3- and 4-digit numbers up to 1 billion
• Key focus: Place value & rounding off
Place Value and Large Numbers
• Place value helps in reading and writing numbers.
• Example: 345 →
• 3 (hundreds), 4 (tens), 5 (ones)
• Tools for teaching:
• Dienes blocks (proportional)
• Abacus (non-proportional)
• Place-value charts
Representing Large Numbers
• Commas or spaces separate blocks of three digits:
• 3,254,167 or 3 254 167
• Key numbers to know:
• 1,000 = One thousand
• 1,000,000 = One million
• 1,000,000,000 = One billion
Reading Large Numbers
• Example: 23,254,167
• "Twenty-three million, two hundred fifty-four thousand, one hundred sixty-
seven."
• Largest 9-digit number: 999,999,999
• Adding 1 → 1,000,000,000 (one billion)
Rounding Off Numbers
• Purpose: Simplify numbers for easier use.
• Examples:
• 12,341 →
• Nearest ten: 12,340
• Nearest hundred: 12,300
• Nearest thousand: 12,000
Rules for Rounding Off
[Link] ten:
1. If digit ≥ 5, round up (e.g., 17 → 20).
[Link] hundred:
1. If tens digit ≥ 50, round up (e.g., 150 → 200).
[Link] thousand:
1. If hundreds digit ≥ 500, round up (e.g., 1,500 → 2,000).
[Link] rule:
1. If number ≥ half of the place value, round up.
Practical Application of Rounding
• Problem:
• 406 pupils need buses.
• Each bus carries 33 pupils.
• 406 ÷ 33 ≈ 12.3 buses → Need 13 buses (cannot have 0.3 of a bus).
• Key Idea: Rounding should make sense in real-life situations.
Self-Assessment Questions
• Exercise 1.1
1. Write numerals for:
1. (a) Two thousand four → 2,004
2. (b) One hundred one million, seven hundred twenty thousand, four hundred fifty-two → 101,720,452
2. Write in words:
1. (a) 100,203 → "One hundred thousand, two hundred three"
• Round 8,326,540 to:
• (a) Nearest ten → 8,326,540
• (b) Nearest hundred → 8,326,500
• (c) Nearest ten thousand → 8,330,000
 Concept of Set and Set Operations

Introduction to Sets
• A set is a well-defined collection of objects.
• Objects in a set are called elements.
• Example:
• Set of vowels: A={a,e,i,o,u}
• Notation:
• e∈A means "e is an element of set A."
• v∉A means "v is not an element of set A."
Ways to Describe a Set
[Link] Property (Description in Words)
1. Example: "The set of the first five counting numbers."
[Link] (Listing/Roster Method)
1. Example: B={1,2,3,4,5}B={1,2,3,4,5}
Types of Sets
1. Empty (Null) Set
2. A set with no elements: {}{} or ∅∅
3. Example: "Set of living persons over 500 years old."
2. Finite Set
4. Has a limited number of elements.
5. Example: C={a,b,c}C={a,b,c}
3. Infinite Set
6. Has unlimited elements.
7. Example: "Set of whole numbers."
Relations Between Sets
[Link] Sets
1. Two sets with exactly the same elements.
2. Example:
1. P={0,1,2,...,9}P={0,1,2,...,9}
2. Q={whole numbers less than 10}Q={whole numbers less than 10}
3. P=QP=Q
[Link] Sets
1. Elements can be paired in a one-to-one correspondence.
2. Example:
1. S={6,7,8}S={6,7,8}
2. Y={8,9,10}Y={8,9,10}
3. S∼Y
• Subsets
• A set TT is a subset of VV if all elements of TT are in VV.
• Example:
• T={2,4,6,8}T={2,4,6,8}
• V={2,4,6,8,10,12}V={2,4,6,8,10,12}
• T⊆V
• Set Operations
[Link] (∩)
1. Contains elements common to both sets.
2. Example:
1. F={1,2,3,4,5}F={1,2,3,4,5}
2. G={2,4,6,7,9,10}G={2,4,6,7,9,10}
3. F∩G={2,4}
[Link] (∪)
1. Contains all elements from both sets.
2. Example:
1. H={1,2,3}H={1,2,3}
2. J={3,5}J={3,5}
3. H∪J={1,2,3,5}
Integers & Operations on
Integers
Introduction to Integers
• Definition: Integers include whole numbers and their negatives (…, -3, -2, -1,
0, +1, +2, +3, …).
• Examples in Real Life:
• Temperature: +5°C (above zero) vs. -5°C (below zero).
• Money: +₵50,000 (deposit) vs. -₵20,000 (withdrawal).
• Elevation: +100m (above sea level) vs. -50m (below sea level).
• Key Points:
• Positive Integers: {+1, +2, +3, …}
• Negative Integers: {…, -3, -2, -1}
• Zero (0): Neither positive nor negative.
•Visualizing Integers:

•Opposites/Inverses:
• The opposite of +3 is -3, and vice versa.
•Reading Integers:
• Correct: "Negative 2" (not "Minus 2").
• Example: (-6) – (-3) means "Negative 6 minus negative 3.”
Addition of Integers Using the Number Line
•Key Rule:
• Addition = Forward movement on the number line.
• Positive integer: Face the right (positive) direction.
• Negative integer: Face the left (negative) direction.
Examples:
1.(+2) + (+3) = +5
1. Start at 0 → Move right to +2 → Move right 3 more units → Land at +5.
2.(-3) + (-4) = -7
1. Start at 0 → Move left to -3 → Move left 4 more units → Land at -7.
3.(-4) + (+3) = -1
1. Start at 0 → Move left to -4 → Turn right → Move forward 3 units → Land at -1.
• Subtraction of Integers Using the Number Line
• Key Rule:
• Subtraction = Backward movement on the number line.
• Positive integer: Face the right (positive) direction.
• Negative integer: Face the left (negative) direction.
• Examples:
1.(+4) – (+6) = -2
1. Start at 0 → Move right to +4 → Face right → Move backward 6 units → Land at -
2.
2.(-6) – (+4) = -10
1. Start at 0 → Move left to -6 → Face right → Move backward 4 units → Land at -
10.
3.(+6) – (-3) = +9
1. Start at 0 → Move right to +6 → Face left → Move backward 3 units → Land at +9.
• Multiplication of Integers
• Key Rules:
• Positive × Positive = Positive (e.g., (+2) × (+4) = +8).
• Negative × Positive = Negative (e.g., (-2) × (+4) = -8).
• Using Number Line:
• (+2) × (+4) = +8
• Start at 0 → Face right → Move +2 units four times → Land at +8.
• (-2) × (+4) = -8
• Start at 0 → Face left → Move -2 units four times → Land at -8.
• Pattern Approach:

Multiplication Result

(+4) × (+2) +8

(+3) × (+2) +6

(+2) × (+2) +4

(-2) × (+2) -4

(-3) × (+2) -6
• Division of Integers
• Key Rules:
• Positive ÷ Positive = Positive (e.g., (+8) ÷ (+2) = +4).
• Negative ÷ Positive = Negative (e.g., (-8) ÷ (+2) = -4).
• Pattern Approach:

Division Result

(+8) ÷ (+2) +4

(+6) ÷ (+2) +3

(-6) ÷ (+2) -3

(-8) ÷ (+2) -4
Operation Rule

Same signs: Add & keep sign. Different signs: Subtract & take the sign of the larger
Addition
number.

Subtraction Change subtraction to addition of the opposite (e.g., a – b = a + (-b)).

Multiplication Positive × Positive = Positive; Negative × Positive = Negative.

Division Positive ÷ Positive = Positive; Negative ÷ Positive = Negative.

Self-Assessment Questions

[Link] the number line to solve:

a) (+4) + (-6)
b) (-5) + (-3)
c) (-2) – (+5)
d) (-7) – (-4)
[Link] patterns to solve:
a) (-3) × (+4)
b) (-6) ÷ (+2)
Common Fractions and Decimal
Fractions
Introduction to Fractions
• Meaning of Fractions:
• Part of a whole
• Part of a group
• Division

Previous Learning:
• Equivalent fractions
• Adding and subtracting fractions using equivalent fractions
Multiplication of Common Fractions

• Key Idea: Unlike whole numbers, multiplication of fractions is not

repeated addition.
Model Used: Continuous region model (area model)
Example:
[Link] 1: Represent the unit-whole (1).
[Link] 2: Find ​of the whole (shaded).
[Link] 3: Find (double-shaded).
[Link] 4: Partition the whole into 20 equal parts → .
• Conclusion: 103​
Division of Common Fractions
• Key Idea: Dividing fractions involves finding how many parts fit into
another.
Example:

[Link] 1: Represent ​of a whole.

[Link] 2: Divide ​into 5 equal parts.
[Link] 3: Each part = ​.
• General Rule:
• Another Example: 54​
Division Algorithm for Fractions
• Key Idea: "Invert and multiply"
Example:
[Link] as
[Link] numerators and denominators:
• General Rule:

Multiplication of Decimal Fractions

• Key Idea: Tenths × Tenths = Hundredths
Example: 0.4×0.2.
[Link]: Use base-ten blocks (flat = 1, long = 0.1, small cube = 0.01).
[Link] 0.2 (two tenths).
[Link] 0.4 of 0.2 → 0.08 (eight hundredths).
• Algorithm:
• Multiply as whole numbers: 4×2=8
• Count decimal places: 1 + 1 = 2 → 0.080.08
Division of Decimal Fractions
• Case 1: Dividing by a Whole Number
• Example: 1.32÷4
[Link]: Use base-ten blocks (1 flat, 3 longs, 2 small cubes).
[Link] step-by-step → 0.33.
• Algorithm:
Perform long division, keeping decimal aligned.
• Case 2: Dividing by a Decimal
• Example: 1.92÷0.6.
[Link] divisor and dividend by 10 → 19.2÷6.
[Link] divide normally → 3.2.
• General Rule:
• Convert divisor to a whole number by multiplying by 10, 100, etc.
• Apply same multiplication to the dividend.
Summary
• Multiplying Fractions: Multiply numerators and denominators.
• Dividing Fractions: Invert and multiply.
• Multiplying Decimals: Count decimal places.
• Dividing Decimals: Convert divisor to whole number first.
Self-Assessment Questions
[Link] a diagram to show .
[Link] using diagrams.
[Link] base-ten blocks to model 0.3×0.5.
[Link] the algorithm for 2.04÷0.3.
RATIO, RATES, AND
PROPORTION
Recap of Ratio and Proportion
• Ratio: Comparison of two quantities of the same kind (e.g., marbles,
books).
• Example: Ato has 3 marbles, Akosua has 2 → Ratio = 3:2.
• Proportion: Equality of ratios.
• Example: Teachers to pupils = 1:15. If pupils = 240, teachers = 16.
• Rate: Compares two different dimensions (e.g., speed = km/hour).
• Examples:
• Simple Interest: 10% of GH¢200,000/year.
• Discounts: 15% off a house priced at GH¢80,000 → Pay GH¢68,000.
Example 1 – Simple Interest
• Problem: Find interest on GH¢15,000 at 10% for 3 years.
Solution:
[Link] interest = (10/100) × GH¢15,000 = GH¢1,500.
[Link] interest = GH¢1,500 × 3 = GH¢4,500.
[Link] amount = GH¢15,000 + GH¢4,500 = GH¢19,500.
Example 2 – Discounts
• Problem: A house costs GH¢80,000 with a 15% discount. What’s the
final price?
Solution:
[Link] = (15/100) × GH¢80,000 = GH¢12,000.
[Link] paid = GH¢80,000 – GH¢12,000 = GH¢68,000.
• Example 3 – Commission
• Problem: An agent earns 12.5% commission on GH¢1,200 sales. Find
commission.
Solution:
• Commission = (12.5/100) × GH¢1,200 = GH¢150.

Direct Proportion
• Definition: Both quantities increase/decrease together.
• Example:
• 12 pencils cost GH¢8 → 24 pencils cost GH¢16.
• Ratio of pencils (12:24) = Ratio of costs (8:16).
Example 4 – Direct Proportion
• Problem: A car uses 15L petrol for 25km. How far can it go with 21L?
Solution:

[Link] of distance = 25:𝑛.

[Link] of fuel = 15:21.

[Link]: 15/21 = 25/𝑛 → 𝑛 = 35km.

Indirect Proportion
• Definition: One quantity increases while the other decreases.
• Example:
• 12 men finish work in 4 days → 6 men take 8 days (double the time).
Example 5 – Indirect Proportion
• Problem: 8 workers finish in 6 days. How many workers finish in 2
days?

[Link] ratio = 8:𝑛.

Solution:

[Link]: 8/𝑛 = 2/6 → 𝑛 = 24 workers.

[Link] ratio = 6:2 (inverse proportion).

Summary
• Rates: Compare different units (e.g., speed, interest).
• Direct Proportion: Both quantities change similarly.
• Indirect Proportion: One increases, the other decreases.
Powers of Numbers & Teaching
Measurement
Powers of Numbers
• Introduction to Exponents
• Exponential Form:
• Base (a): Number being multiplied.
• Exponent (n): Number of times the base is multiplied.
• Example:
Prime Factorization
• Definition: Breaking down a number into products of prime factors.
• Examples:

• Activity: Guide pupils to express numbers like 36, 64 as powers of primes.

Multiplying Powers with Same Base

• Rule:
• Examples:

• Visualization: Expand terms .

Dividing Powers with the Same Base
• Rule:
• Examples:

Zero Power Rule

• Discovery:
• Pattern:.
• Proof:
• General Rule: (for any natural number a).
Teaching Measurement
• Introduction to Measurement
• Key Idea: Quantifying attributes (length, mass, time) using standard
units.
• Process:
• Choose a unit (e.g., meter, kilogram).
• Compare object/event to the unit.
Measuring Length
• Units: Meters (m), centimeters (cm).
• Activities:
• Estimate and measure classroom objects (e.g., desk length = 1.2 m).
• Convert units (e.g., 150 cm = 1.5 m).
Perimeter of Shapes
• Definition: Total distance around a shape.
• Examples:
• Square:
• Rectangle:

Measuring Time
• Units: Seconds, minutes, hours.
• Activities:
• Calculate elapsed time (e.g., start: 9:15 AM, end: 10:30 AM → 1h 15m).

Measuring Mass
• Units: Kilograms (kg), grams (g).
• Precision: Measure to nearest kg, 0.1 kg, or 0.01 kg.
• Tools: Scales, balances.
Money (Ghanaian Currency)
• Denominations: GH₵ (cedis), pesewas.
• Activity: Identify coins/notes (e.g., GH₵1, GH₵5, 50 pesewas).

Measuring Angles
• Tool: Protractor.
• Steps:
• Align protractor’s center with angle vertex.
• Read angle measure (e.g., 45°).
MEASUREMENT OF LENGTH
Measuring Lengths – Progression
• Stages of Learning:
[Link]/Indirect Comparisons (e.g., comparing objects by size).
[Link]-Standard Units (e.g., hand spans, sticks).
[Link] Units:
1. Unmarked metre rules → Marked rulers (centimetres) → Metre
sticks/trundle wheels.
Using Marked Rulers
• First Ruler: Whole-centimetre divisions without numerals (Fig 2.1).
• Pupils count units to measure length.
• Next Ruler: Numerals added (Fig 2.2).
• Pupils read measurements directly (left end = "0").
• Advanced Tools: Metre sticks, trundle wheels, measuring tapes (mm/cm).
Practical Measurement Activities
• Tasks for Pupils:
• Measure objects (pencils, books, sticks) to the nearest cm/mm.
• Example:
• Stick A: Slightly >10 cm → Reported as ~10.5 cm.
• Stick B: Slightly <10 cm → Reported as ~10 cm.
• Key Concept: Judgment for midpoint values (e.g., 10.5 cm).
Estimation & Mental Models
• Why Estimate?
• Real-life applications (e.g., cycling routes, fencing gardens).
Activities to Build Mental Models:
• Estimate thickness of a coin (~1 mm) or table height (~1 m).
• Walk 1 km to internalize longer distances (use school landmarks).

Self-Assessment Questions
[Link] start with rulers without numerals?
[Link] does a pupil use a ruler with numerals?
[Link] develop mental models of length?
Perimeter of Plane Shapes
Perimeter Introduction
• Definition: Total distance around a closed shape.
• Applications: Ribbon for borders, fencing gardens.
• Tools: Rulers, tape measures, trundle wheels.
Perimeter Formulas
[Link]: .
[Link]:
[Link] Triangle:
Circumference of a Circle
• Key Formula:
Hands-On Activity:
[Link] circumference (string around objects).
[Link] diameter (ruler between blocks).
[Link] → Always ≈ .
Understanding
• (irrational number).
• Derived from ratio (constant for all circles).
• Extension: Link radius (.
Self-Assessment Questions
[Link] guide pupils to derive rectangle perimeter?
[Link] π in .

Summary & Key Takeaways

• Measurement: Progress from non-standard to precise tools.
• Perimeter: Formulas for common shapes.
• Circumference:
MEASUREMENT OF TIME
Analog vs. Digital Clocks
• Analog Clock:
• Shows current time + elapsed time (moving hands).
• Visualizes duration (e.g., minute hand from 8:00 to 8:30 = 30 mins).

• Digital Clock:
• Displays current time only (numeric format).
• Key Concept: Both track seconds, minutes, hours.
Teaching Strategies
[Link] clock types with real examples.
[Link] real-life scenarios (e.g., bus schedules, TV guides).
[Link] pupils:
1. "If it’s , what time will it be in 2 hrs 10 mins?"
[Link]/measure event durations (e.g., recess, lessons).

Self-Assessment
[Link] is the underlying concept of both clock types?
[Link] does an analog clock aid in measuring elapsed time?
MEASUREMENT OF MASS
• Standard Units
• Kilogram (kg): Primary unit.
• Activities:
• Mold 1 kg clay balls; compare classroom objects.
• Use bathroom scales to measure body weight.
• Gram (g): 1/1000 of a kg.
• Compare small objects (paperclips, cubes).
• Metric Ton: 1000 kg (for heavy cargo).
Practical Activities
[Link] objects: >1 kg, <1 kg, ≈1 kg.
[Link] balance scales with standard masses (1 kg, 500 g, etc.).
[Link] packaged goods (sugar, rice) to read mass labels.
Self-Assessment
[Link] big objects always heavier? Explain.
[Link] units to objects:
1. Tablespoon (g), Teacher (kg), Ship cargo (metric ton).
MONEY (GHANA CURRENCY)
• Currency Recognition
• Coins: 10Gp, 20Gp, 50Gp, GH¢1.
• Notes: GH¢1, GH¢2, GH¢5, GH¢10, GH¢20, GH¢50.
• Activities:
• Identify features (size, color, value).
• Simulate purchases (e.g., buy items with exact change).
• Calculating Value
• Example: Pay GH¢135 with GH¢20, GH¢10, GH¢5 notes.
Combinations table:

GH¢20 GH¢10 GH¢5 Total

6 1 1 135

4 5 1 135

Self-Assessment

[Link] 3 features distinguishing GH¢2 and GH¢5 notes.

[Link] GH¢1.50 using 5Gp, 10Gp, 20Gp coins (show combinations).
Measurement of Angles
• Introduction to Angles
• An angle is the amount of turning made about a point.
• In primary school, angles can be introduced through real-life
examples:
• Turning the body (full, half, quarter turns).
• Opening a book, door, or window.
• Another way to define an angle: Union of two rays with the same
endpoint.
Direct Comparison of Angles
• Method:
• Trace one angle and compare it with another.
• Align the vertex and one arm of the traced angle with the other angle.
• The smaller angle’s second arm will lie inside the larger angle.
• Activity:
• Give pupils tracing paper with different angles.
• Let them order angles by size using tracing and comparison.
Measuring Angles with Arbitrary Units
• Steps:
• Draw an angle on the board.
• Ask pupils: "How big is this angle?"
• Let them create a small angle (e.g., cardboard wedge) as a measuring unit.
• Determine how many units fit inside the angle.
• Activity:
• Pupils predict and verify using different-sized unit angles.
Using Non-Standard Units
• Hands-on Approach:
• Fold a semi-circular cut-out into equal sectors.
• Use this to measure angles of cardboard wedges.
• Key Idea:
• The size of the angle depends on how many unit angles fit inside it.
Introducing Standard Units
• Right Angle as Reference:
• Fold paper twice to create a right angle (90°).
• Identify right angles in the classroom.
• Classify angles as:
• Acute angle (less than 90°).
• Obtuse angle (greater than 90° but less than 180°).
Degrees as a Standard Unit
• Definition:
• of a right angle.
• Key Measures:
• Quarter turn (right angle) = 90°
• Half turn (straight angle) = 180°
• Full turn = 360°
• Activity:
• Estimate and measure angles using a protractor.
Using a Protractor
• Steps for Measuring:
• Align the baseline with one arm.
• Place the vertex at the centre.
• Read the measure where the second arm points.
• Activity:
• Pupils draw angles, partners estimate and measure.
Self-Assessment Questions
[Link] two ways to introduce angles to pupils.
[Link] what it means to measure an angle.
[Link] can a pupil compare two angles without a protractor?

Summary
• Angles can be introduced through turning and real-world examples.
• Measurement starts with direct comparison, then arbitrary units, and
finally degrees.
• A protractor is used for precise measurement in standard units.