Chapter: Two
Human Learning
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Definition of Learning
Learning is defined as a relatively
permanent change in behavior resulting from
experience or practice.
Key Concepts in the Definition of LEARNING
Relatively permanent
Change in behavior
Experience or practice
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Conti….
First :- learning is marked by a
change.
Second:-the change is a change in
behavior/ in the mental process.
Third :- the change in behavior should
be relatively permanent.
That is it is neither temporary nor fixed
once and for all.
Fourth :- the relatively permanent
change in behavior must come from
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Factors for effective
learning
1. Motivation
When the motives of learning are high, the learner becomes enthusiastic.
2. Intelligence
It enables us to understand things
It enables us to see the relationships between things
It enables us to reason and judge correctly and critically.
3. Maturation
Neuro-muscular coordination is important for learning a given task.
Example- The child has to be physically mature before he is able to walk
or run.
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Factors………………
4. Physical condition of the learner
The learner should be in a good health status.
Example- Sensory defects, malnutrition, toxic
conditions of the body, loss of sleep and fatigue hinder
effective learning.
5. Good Learning conditions
Example- Fresh air, light, comfortable surroundings,
moderate temperature, absence of distractions like
noise, aid in learning efficiently
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Factors………
6. Mental health of the learner
Example- Worries, fears, feelings of loneliness and inferiority
hinders learning. Self-respect, self-reliance, and self-confidence
are necessary for effective learning.
7. Length of the Learning period
Learning periods should neither be too short nor too long.
Long learning time sets fatigue and reduces effectiveness in
learning.
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Theories of Learning
A learning theory is an attempt to describe
how people and animals learn
Theories of learning provide explanations about
the underlying mechanisms involved in the
learning process.
Whereas principles tell us what factors are
important for learning,
Theories tell us why these factors are important.
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There are three major
theories of learning.
Behavioral learning theory
Cognitive learning theory
Social cognitive learning
theory
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Behavioral learning
theory
Behavioral Psychology is basically interested in how
our behavior results from the stimulus
• Behaviour is learned
• Can be unlearned
• Can be relearned
Learning: resulted of the association b/n S-S or S-R
Learning is explained as Behavioural change
As a result of Practice and Experience
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Models of learning in
behaviorism
There are two types of models of learning
Classical conditioning :Ivan Pavlov
Operant (instrumental) conditioning : F
Skinner
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Classical conditioning
Classical conditioning (also known as Pavlovian
conditioning) is learning through association and was
discovered by Pavlov, a Russian physiologist.
Behavior is learned
Learning is the result of S-S
Two stimuli are linked together to produce a new learned
response
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Conditioning: Learning
Stimulus: Any event in the environment that can bring or
elicit response
Response: Any action or reaction elicited or brought by a
Stimulus
Natural or Unconditioned or unlearned stimulus–
Naturally that can bring response
Neutral stimulus- Naturally that can’t bring response
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Classical Conditioning
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Elements in classical
conditioning
Unconditional stimulus (UCS):- Stimulus that
elicits the innate reflex (e.g., food).
A stimulus that elicits a response before any
conditioning has occurred. It is also called
unlearned stimulus
Unconditional response (UCR):- Reflex action
that occurs in response to US (e.g., salivation).
A response elicited by an unconditioned
stimulus. It is unlearned response.
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Conti..
Conditional stimulus (CS):-Any stimulus that
doesn’t originally elicit the UR (e.g., bell).
A stimulus that elicits a response after being
paired with an unconditioned stimulus. It is the
learned stimulus.
Conditional response (CR):- The action
elicited by the CS (e.g., salivation). A response
elicited by a conditioned stimulus. It is the
learned response.
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Example: One
For example: a baby learns to associate the sight of a
feeding bottle with milk
The advertisements you’ve seen on billboards and
television typically feature classical conditioning.
Most companies use various models to make their
ads more relatable.
In the same way, advertisers also use female models
to promote specific products
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Principle of CC
The principle of stimulus
generalization:- it states that when the
CR is responded to stimuli that are similar
to the CS, there is stimulus generalization.
The principle of stimulus
discrimination:- the conditioned
response is not responded to stimuli that
similar to the conditioned stimulus.
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Conti..
The principle of Extinction: - It states
that if the CS is presented repeatedly
without presenting the unconditioned
stimulus, the conditioned response will
diminish and eventually stop occurring.
The principle of spontaneous
recovery: - is the reappearance of the
extinct behavior after a rest period.
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Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning is a learning process through
which the strength of a behavior is modified by
reinforcement or punishment.
view learning as the product of the association
between stimulus (S) and the responses (R).
It is sometimes referred as the S-R
The behaviorist, to modify people’s attitudes and
responses, recommends either to alter the
stimulus conditions in the environment or to
change what happens20after a response occurs.
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The History of Operant
Conditioning
Operant conditioning was coined by behaviorist B.F. Skinner,
which is why you may occasionally hear it referred to as
Skinnerian conditioning. As a behaviorist, Skinner believed that it
was not really necessary to look at internal thoughts and
motivations in order to explain behavior. Instead, he suggested,
we should look only at the external, observable causes of
human behavior.
Where the early behaviorists had focused their interests on
associative learning, Skinner was more interested in how
the consequences of people's actions influenced their behavior.
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The consequences……
The consequences of people's actions can be
Rewarding /Positive
Punishing /Negative
The emphasis is given to the
role of
Reinforcement
Punishment
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Reinforcement in
Operant Conditioning
Reinforcement can be defined as any
event that increases the probability of the
occurrence of a Behavior.
Reinforcement is any event that
strengthens or increases the behavior
it follows.
There are two kinds of reinforcers:
Negative
Positive
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Positive reinforcers are favorable
events or outcomes that are presented
after the behavior. In situations that
reflect positive reinforcement, a response
or behavior is strengthened by the
addition of something, such as praise or
a direct reward.
For example, if you do a good job at work
and your manager gives you a bonus.
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Negative reinforcers involve the
removal of an unfavorable events or
outcomes after the display of a
behavior.
In these situations, a response is
strengthened by the removal of
something considered unpleasant.
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Reinforcement Schedules
There are a number of factors that can influence how
quickly and how well new things are learned.
Skinner found that when and how often behaviors were
reinforced played a role in the speed and strength of
acquisition.
In other words, the timing and frequency of
reinforcement influenced how new behaviors were
learned and how old behaviors were modified.
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There are a number of factors that can influence
how quickly and how well new things are
learned.
Skinner found that when and how often behaviors
were reinforced played a role in the speed and
strength of acquisition.
In other words, the timing and frequency of
reinforcement influenced how new behaviors
were learned and how old behaviors were
modified.
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Types of Reinforcement
Schedules
Continuous Schedules of reinforcement
Intermittent (partial) Schedules of reinforcement
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Continuous reinforcement:
A schedule of reinforcement that rewards
every correct response given.
Response is reinforced each time it occurs.
A reinforcer follows every response.
Best used for shaping or maintaining difficult
behavior.
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Intermittent (partial)
Intermittent (partial) schedule of reinforcement, which
involves reinforcing only some responses, not all of
them.
Intermittent Reinforcement: A type of reinforcement
schedule by which some, but not all, correct responses are
reinforced.
Intermittent reinforcement is the most effective way to
maintain a desired behavior that has already been learned
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Schedules of Intermittent
Reinforcement
Interval schedule: rewards
subjects after a certain time
interval.
Ratio schedule: rewards subjects
after a certain number of
responses.
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Ratio
Fixed-ratio schedules: A fixed ratio
schedule of reinforcement occurs after a
fixed number of responses.
Variable-Ratio Schedule: A variable ratio
schedule of reinforcement occurs after
varied number of responses
The responses are more resistant to
extinction than when a fixed ratio schedule
is used.
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Interval
Fixed Interval Schedule: A fixed
interval schedule of reinforcement
occurs only if a fixed amount of
time has passed
Variable Interval Schedule: A
variable interval schedule of
reinforcement occurs only if a
variable amount of time has
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Summary
of the schedule of RI
Ratio Interval
Fixed Deliver Deliver Reinforcement
Reinforcement after after an exact amount
an exact Number of of time has
correct responses elapsed/passed
Variable Deliver Deliver Reinforcement
Reinforcement after a after an varied amount
varied Number of of time has
correct responses elapsed/passed
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Punishment in Operant
Conditioning
Punishment: refers to unpleasant stimulus
that decreases the probability of the
occurrence of a behavior.
Punishment is the presentation of an
adverse event or outcome that causes a
decrease in the behavior it follows.
There are two kinds of punishment:
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Types of Punishment
Positive punishment, sometimes referred
to as punishment by application, presents
an unfavorable event or outcome in order
to weaken the response it follows.
Spanking for misbehavior is an example of
punishment by application.
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Types of Punishment
Negative punishment, also known as punishment
by removal, occurs when a favorable event or
outcome is removed after a behavior occurs.
Taking away a child's video game following
misbehavior is an example of negative punishment.
In both of these cases of punishment, the
behavior decreases.
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Examples of
Punishment
If you fail to hand in a project on time, your
boss becomes angry and berates your
performance in front of your co-workers.
This acts as a positive punisher making it less
likely that you will finish projects late in the
future.
A teen girl does not clean up her room as she
was asked, so her parents take away her
phone for the rest of the day.
This is an example of41 a negative punishment
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When Punishment
works
Immediacy – When punishment follows
immediately after the behavior to be
punished.
Consistency- when punishment is
inconsistent the behaviour being punished is
intermittently reinforced and therefore
becomes resistant to extinction.
Intensity- In general terms severe
punishments are more effective than mild
ones.
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Principles of Operant
Conditioning
Extinction: In operant conditioning, extinction refers
to the gradual weakening of and disappearance of a
response tendency because the response is no longer
followed by a reinforcer.
Spontaneous Recovery: Just as in a classical
conditioning, animals and people whose operant
behaviors have been extinguished may recover them.
This is called spontaneous recovery.
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Stimulus Generalization: Stimulus generalization
describes the phenomenon whereby an animal or a
person has learned a response to one stimulus and then
applies it to other similar stimuli.
Stimulus Discrimination: The tendency for a response
to occur in the presence of a stimulus but not in the
presence of other, similar stimuli that differ from it on
some dimension.
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Operant and Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning
Behavior is controlled by the stimuli that Behavior is controlled by consequences
precede the response (by the CS and the (rewards, punishments) that follow the
UCS). response.
No reward or punishment is involved Often involves rewards (reinforcement) and
(although pleasant and averse stimuli may be punishments.
used).
Through conditioning, a new stimulus (CS) Through conditioning, a new stimulus
comes to produce the old (reflexive) (reinforcer) produces a new behavior.
behavior.
Extinction is produced by withholding the Extinction is produced by withholding
UCS. reinforcement.
Learner is passive (acts reflexively): Learner is active: Responses are voluntary.
Responses are involuntary. That is behavior That is behavior is emitted by the organism.
is elicited by stimulation.
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Observational learning
theory
The founder of the theory was Albert Bandura.
The theory claims that a major part of human learning takes place
through observing the behavior of another person called a
model.
Social Learning : Behavioral and Cognitive Learning
The term model may refer to an actual person whose behavior
serves as a stimulus for an observer’s response.
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Types of Models
Real life models: These are really existing models such as
parents, teachers, friends, heroes of films, sport stars and other
most successful persons in life.
Symbolic models: These are representatives of real life models.
They include materials and other works of individuals.
Not only negative behaviors are learned through observational
learning. We learn positive behaviors too.
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Processes of Learning
through Imitation
Attention: Individuals cannot learn much by
observation unless they perceive and attend to
the significant features of the modeled behavior.
Retention: In order to reproduce the modelled
behaviour, individuals must encode the
information into long-term memory. Therefore,
the information will be retrieval.
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Conti….
Reproduction: The observer must be able
to reproduce the model’s behavior.
If it is a physical behaviour, the observer
must learn and posses the physical
capabilities of the modeled behavior.
Motivation or Reinforcement : The
observer expects to receive positive
reinforcements for the modelled behavior.
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Types of Reinforcement
Imitation may be reinforced in two ways
Direct Reinforcement – it involves the direct reinforcement of
the learner by the model.
For example, a child is praised for imitating the behavior of his
sister.
Vicarious Reinforcement – it involves obtained a secondhand
type of satisfaction from imitating.
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End of Chapter Three
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