SETS AND OPERATION

ON SETS

KARTIK SHARMA
11 - B
 Introduction to Sets
2
Definition of Sets
Set Representation
Subset and Superset Concepts
Types of Sets
Cardinal Number of a Set
Union of Sets

INDEX Intersection of Sets

Set Subtraction
Complement of Sets
Venn Diagram
Commutative Properties
Associative Properties
Properties of the Empty Set (∅)
Distributive Properties
De Morgan's Law
Set Formulas
Conclusion
Bibliography
INTRODUCTION TO SETS 3

Developed by German mathematician Georg

Cantor (1845-1918)
Originated from his work on "Problems on
Trigonometric Series"
Sets have been used in mathematics since their
discovery
Introduction to the concept of sets
 4

WHAT ARE SETS

• Definition: A set is a well-defined collection of distinct objects

treated as a single entity.
• Order Irrelevance: The arrangement of objects in a set does not
matter.
• Importance: Sets are fundamental in mathematics.
• History: Set theory was developed in the late 19th century.
• Application: Set theory serves as a foundation for nearly all
mathematics.
REPRESENTATION OF A SET 5

Representation of a Set: Two common methods

to specify set members.
Roster Form: Lists each member inside curly
brackets, e.g., A = {4, 2, 1, 3}, B = {blue, white,
red}.
Set Builder Form: Defines a set by a condition
on elements from a larger set, e.g., F = { n | n is
an integer, 0 ≤ n ≤ 19 }.
Notation Details: The vertical bar "|" means
"such that"; sometimes a colon ":" is used instead.
 6
SUBSET AND SUPERSET

If every element in set A is also in set B, then A is called a subset of B. We write this as A ⊆ B, which
means "A is contained in B."
Another way to say this is that B is a superset of A, written as B ⊇ A, meaning "B includes A."
This relationship is called inclusion or containment.
Two sets are equal if they contain exactly the same elements. That means A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A together
mean A = B.
If A is a subset of B but not exactly the same as B, then A is a proper subset of B. We write this as A
⊂ B or A ⊊ B. Similarly, B is a proper superset of A, written B ⊃ A or B ⊋ A.
Examples:
The set of all humans is a proper subset of the set of all mammals.
{1, 3} ⊆ {1, 2, 3, 4} (because every element in {1, 3} is also in {1, 2, 3, 4})
{1, 2, 3, 4} ⊆ {1, 2, 3, 4} (these two sets are equal)
 TYPES OF SET 7

Universal Set: Contains all elements under

consideration; denoted by ( \Omega ), ( S ), or ( U ). For
example, if ( A = {1, 2, 3} ) and ( B = {0, 1} ), a
universal set could be ( U = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} ).
Finite Set: Has a countable, limited number of
elements. Examples include ( A = {5, 7, 9, 11} ) with 4
elements, and
( B = {4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128} ) with 6 elements.
Infinite Set: Contains endless elements. Examples
include the set of all natural numbers ( N = {1, 2, 3, \
ldots} ) and the set of all rational numbers between 0
and 1, ( Q = {x : x \in \mathbb{Q}, 0 < x < 1} ).
 8
Equal Sets: Two sets A and B are equal if they contain exactly the same
elements, denoted as A = B.
• Example: A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {3, 2, 1} are equal sets.

Null Set / Empty Set: A set with no elements, represented as {} or ∅,

and has a cardinality of 0.
• Example: C = {} or C = ∅.
• Example: D = {x : x is a natural number less than 0} is an empty set.

Singleton Set: A set containing exactly one element.

• Example: B = {x : x is an even prime number} is a singleton set because it contains
only the number 2.
• Example: A = {x : x is neither prime nor composite} contains only the element 1.
• Example: E = {5} is a singleton set with the single element 5.
Power Set: The set of all subsets of a set S, including S itself and the empty set. 9
Notation: Power set of S is written as P(S).
Example: For S = {1, 2, 3}, P(S) = {{1, 2, 3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}, {1}, {2}, {3}, ∅}.
Additional Example: For S = {a, b}, P(S) = {{a, b}, {a}, {b}, ∅}.
Size: A finite set with n elements has a power set with 2^n elements (e.g., 3 elements → 8 subsets).
Equivalent Sets: Sets with the same number of elements, regardless of the elements themselves.
Example: Set A = {A, B, C, D, E} and Set B = {January, February, March, April, May} both have 5
elements, so they are equivalent.
Additional Example: Set X = {cat, dog} and Set Y = {1, 2} both have 2 elements, making them
equivalent.
Disjoint Sets: Two sets with no elements in common.
Equivalent Definition: Their intersection is the empty set.
Example: {1, 2, 3} and {4, 5, 6} are disjoint; {1, 2, 3} and {3, 4, 5} are not.
Additional Example: {apple, orange} and {banana, grape} are disjoint sets.
Multiple Sets: A collection is disjoint if every pair of distinct sets in it is disjoint.
CARDINAL NUMBER OF SET 10

Cardinal number: Count of distinct elements in a finite

set.
Denoted as n(A), meaning "number of elements in set A".
Example: Set A = {2, 4, 5, 9, 15} has 5 elements, so n(A)
= 5.
Example: Set B = {w, x, y, z} has 4 elements, so n(B) =
4.
Example: Set C = {Florida, New York, California} has 3
elements, so n(C) = 3.
 UNION OF SET 11

Union (∪): Combines all elements from given sets.

Operation: A ∪ B includes elements in A, B, or both.
Symbol: A ∪ B = { x | x ∈ A or x ∈ B }.
Finite Example 1: A = {1,3,5,7}, B = {1,2,4,6,7} → A ∪ B =
{1,2,3,4,5,6,7}.
Finite Example 2: C = {a, b, c}, D = {b, d, e} → C ∪ D = {a, b, c, d, e}.
Infinite Example: A = even integers >1, B = odd integers >1 → A ∪ B =
{2,3,4,5,...}.
No Duplicates: Union merges sets without repeats.
INTERSECTION OF SETS 12

Definition: The intersection of sets A and B, denoted A ∩ B, contains all elements

common to both A and B.

Symbol: Intersection is represented by "∩" placed between the sets.

Condition: An element x is in A ∩ B if and only if x ∈ A and x ∈ B.

Examples:
{1,2,3} ∩ {2,3,4} = {2,3}
{1,2,3} ∩ {4,5,6} = ∅ (empty set)
Z ∩ N = N (integers intersect natural numbers)
{x ∈ R : x is an even prime number} ∩ N = {2}
SUBSTRACTION OF SETS 13

Definition: Subtraction of sets removes elements of

one set from another.
Symbols: Represented by – or \ (e.g., A – B or A \ B).
Example Sets: A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, B = {2, 3, 5, 7,
11, 13, 17}.
Result: A – B = {1, 4, 6} (elements in A not in B).
COMPLEMENT OF SET 14

Definition: The complement of a set A includes all

elements not in A, within a larger set U.
Universal Set (U): Contains all elements under
consideration; often implied or previously defined.
Absolute Complement: Denoted as A', it equals U
minus A (A' = U – A).
Formal Expression: A' = { x ∈ U | x ∉ A }.
Notation: The absolute complement of A is usually
written as A'.
 VENN DIAGRAM 15

Definition: Venn diagrams show all possible

logical relations between a finite collection
of sets.
Origin: Created around 1880 by John Venn.
Uses: Teach elementary set theory and
illustrate relationships in probability, logic,
statistics, linguistics, and computer science.
Components: Consist of rectangles
(representing the universal set) and closed
curves, usually circles (representing
subsets).
COMMUTATIVE PROPERTIES 16

Commutative Property Definition: The order of

sets in union or intersection does not affect the
result.
General Formulas: A ∪ B = B ∪ A and A ∩ B = B
∩ A.
Example Sets:
• A = {whole numbers between 4 and 8} = {5, 6, 7}
• B = {even natural numbers less than 10} = {2, 4, 6, 8}

Union Example: A ∪ B = {2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} = B ∪ A

Intersection Example: A ∩ B = {6} = B ∩ A
 ASSOCIATIVE PROPERTIES 17

Associative Property Definition: Grouping of sets does not

affect the result for union or intersection.
General Property:
• Union: (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C)
• Intersection: (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C)

Example Sets: A = {a, n, t}, B = {t, a, p}, C = {s, a, p}

Union Example: (A ∪ B) ∪ C = {p, a, n, t, s} = A ∪ (B ∪ C)
Intersection Example: (A ∩ B) ∩ C = {a} = A ∩ (B ∩ C)
 DISTRIBUTIVE PROPERTIES 18

Distributive Properties: Describe how union and intersection operations distribute over
each other in sets.
Key Formulas:
• Union over Intersection: A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)
• Intersection over Union: A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)

Example Sets: A = {a, n, t}, B = {t, a, p}, C = {s, a, p}

Example Calculations:
• A ∪ (B ∩ C) = {a, n, t} ∪ {a, p} = {p, a, n, t}
• (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C) = {p, a, n, t} ∩ {p, a, n, t, s} = {p, a, n, t}
• A ∩ (B ∪ C) = {a, n, t} ∩ {t, a, p, s} = {a, t}
• (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C) = {a, t} ∪ {a} = {a, t}
DE – MORGANS LAW 19

De Morgan's Laws: Two valid inference rules named after Augustus De Morgan, a 19th-century
British mathematician.
Purpose: Transform conjunctions (AND) and disjunctions (OR) using negation.
Laws:
• ((A \cup B)' = A' \cap B')
• ((A \cap B)' = A' \cup B')

Example Sets:
• Universal set (U = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8})
• (P = {4,5,6}), (Q = {5,6,8})

Simplified Example:
• (P \cup Q = {4,5,6,8})
• The complement of (P \cup Q) is ({1,2,3,7})
• The complements of (P) and (Q) are ({1,2,3,7,8}) and ({1,2,3,4,7}) respectively
• The intersection of these complements is ({1,2,3,7})
 FORMULAS OF SETS 20

Union with Universal Set: U ∪ A = U

Intersection with Universal Set: U ∩ A = A
Idempotent Laws: A ∪ A = A, A ∩ A = A
Complement Laws: A ∪ A' = U, A ∩ A' = ∅
Double Complement: (A')' = A
Complements of Empty and Universal Sets: ∅' = U, U' = ∅
Cardinality of Union: n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) - n(A ∩ B)
Set Difference: A – B = A ∩ B'
Cardinality of Set Difference: n(A – B) = n(A) - n(A ∩ B)
Cardinality Relation: n(A) + n(A') = n(U)
Cardinality of Union of Three Sets: n(A ∪ B ∪ C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) - n(A
∩ B) - n(B ∩ C) - n(A ∩ C) + n(A ∩ B ∩ C)
THANK YOU