POWER DISTRIBUTION &

UTILIZATION

LECTURE 01
By: Engr. Syeda Tahreem Zahra
 Attendance and Expectations

Attendance in class is Mandatory

Class Etiquette:

(1) Don’t read other inappropriate materials in the class

(2) Don’t talk to anyone other than the instructor

(3) Don’t arrive late

(4) Don’t do work unrelated to this class

(5) Don’t sleep in class

(6) Don’t let cell phones ring

(7) Don’t text and call to instructor except CR and CR should do it during working
hours only.

(8) Don’t violate Code of Student Conduct

• Quiz 10%
• Assignment 10%
• Mid exam 30%
• End exam 50%

Grading Policy
HEC Course Outline
Introduction to distribution system: Urban, suburban and rural distribution
systems, Primary, secondary and tertiary voltages, distribution conductors &
cables, Kelvin’s law, systems, application of distribution transformers,
Estimation of load, load characteristics, substation switchgears and
bus-bar arrangements, Calculation of voltage drop and regulation
in distribution feeders.

Power Cables: Cable Construction, Types of Cables, Insulating materials,

Conducting materials, Capacitance of a Cable, Dielectric Power Loss,
Thermal Characteristics of Cables, Cable Installation, Cable Selection
Criteria, Calculation of Current Rating of Cables, Voltage drop calculation,
Cable Fault Localization.

Grounding and Earthing: Distribution transformer neutral, Earthing

resistance, Earthing practice in L.V. networks, Electrical Safety.

Power Factor: Disadvantages and causes of low power factor, methods for
improvement, application of shunt capacitors in distribution network.
HEC Course Outline

Electrochemical Processes: Main types of batteries and their working, battery

charging, electroplating, electrolysis and electrometallurgical process,
Cathodic protection of poles, gas pipes, oil pipes and water structures.

Heating and Welding: Electric heating, resistance, induction and dielectric

heating, electric furnaces, microwave and infrared heating, electric welding,
resistance welding and its types.

Fundamentals of Illumination: Basic lighting terminologies and laws of

illumination, Requirements for good lighting, Illumination schemes for various
situations (street lighting, commercial/industrial lighting,
stadium/flood/stage/spot lighting, etc.), Types of lamps, their working and
relative merit, Building lighting design.

Modern trends in Power Distribution & utilization.

 Recommended Books:

Text Book:
• Principles of Power System, Latest Ed.V.K. Mehta & Rohit Mehta
Schand Publications.

Reference Books:
• M. L. Anand, "A Text Book of Electrical Power", Latest Edition.
• Turan Gonen, "Electrical Power Distribution System", Latest
Edition.
 Course Description

• A breath core-I course of Power Distribution & Utilization at

undergraduate level. Students are introduced to the basics of power
distribution systems and effective utilization of power in heating
and illumination applications.
 Overview

What is a Power System?

Power system includes all parts of an electric system power
sources and customers.

What is the function of the system?

The Function of the system is to generate power , transmit this

power and to distribute it to customers at voltage levels and
reliability that are appropriate to various users.
Electric Power System
 Power System Components
• What are the main component of a power system?

Generation plants (Alternators & Transformers) Different Technologies

HV Substations (Transformers, Circuit Breakers, PT,CT etc..)

Transmission Lines Extra High Voltage (AC & DC)

Bulk power Substations (T/F, CB, PT,CT etc..)

Distribution system (T/F, Meters & Loads) Medium and Low voltage
Power System
Functions
Storage

Transmission
Source of Energy & Energy
Fuel Conversion Distribution Conversion
(Utilization)
Four Conditions for Connecting A
Generator to the Grid:

[Link] 3-phase voltage must have

the same frequency as the grid.

[Link] 3-phase voltage must have

the same amplitude at its
terminals as the one of the grid
voltage.

[Link] three-phase voltage must

have the same phase sequence Source:
[Link]
as the grid voltage. [Link]/Generation,_Transmission,_and_Distribution_of
_Electricity

[Link] three-phase voltage must

be in phase with the grid
voltage.
 Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA)

Computer Systems that monitor and control energy system. The

crucial part of Energy Management System.
Hydrocarbons (oil, coal, natural gas etc)
Water
Nuclear
Solar
Chemical
Wind
Tidal

Energy sources
• Connect generating plants to consumption points.
• High voltage transmission offers:
• Lower transmission losses/ MW transfer
• Lower line voltage drop/km
• Higher transmission capacity/km
• Reduced right-of-way requirement/ MW transfer
• Lower capital and operational cost/ MW transfer

Power
Transmission
• Transformers
• Step-up transformer
• Step-down transformer
• Voltage regulators
• Phase shifters

Power Transmission
Equipment
• Transmission lines & cables
• Circuit breakers & isolators
• Shunt & series reactors & capacitors
• Lightning arrestors
• Protective relays
• FACTs devices (SVC, STATCOM, TCSC, UPFC etc)
• Converters/ inverters

Power Transmission
Equipment
• Electricity distribution is the final stage in
the delivery of electricity to end users. A distribution
system's network carries electricity from the transmission
system and delivers it to consumers.

Power Distribution
 Introduction
 The electrical energy produced at the generating station is conveyed to the
consumers through a network of transmission and distribution systems.
 It is often difficult to draw a line between the transmission and distribution
systems of a large power system.
 It is impossible to distinguish the two merely by their voltage because what was
considered as a high voltage a few years ago is now considered as a low voltage.
 In general, distribution system is that part of power system which distributes
power to the consumers for utilization.
 The transmission and distribution systems are similar to man’s circulatory system.
 The transmission system may be compared with arteries in the human body and
distribution system with capillaries.
 They serve the same purpose of supplying the ultimate consumer in the city with
the life giving blood of electricity.
 In this lecture, we shall confine our attention to the general introduction to
distribution system.
Distribution System
 That part of power system which distributes electric power for local use is
known as distribution system.
 In general, the distribution system is the electrical system between the sub-
station fed by the transmission system and the consumers meters.
 It generally consists of feeders, distributors and the service mains.
 Feeders: A feeder is a conductor which connects the sub-station (or localized
generating station) to the area where power is to be distributed. Generally, no
tapping's are taken from the feeder so that current in it remains the same
throughout. The main consideration in the design of a feeder is the current
carrying capacity.
 Distributor: A distributor is a conductor from which tapping's are taken for
supply to the consumers. In Fig. 12.1, AB, BC, CD and DA are the distributors.
The current through a distributor is not constant because tapping's are taken at
various places along its length. While designing a distributor, voltage drop along
its length is the main consideration since the statutory limit of voltage variations
is ± 6% of rated value at the consumers’ terminals.
 Service mains: A service mains is generally a small cable which connects the
distributor to the consumers’ terminals.
Classification of Distribution Systems
A distribution system may be classified according to ;
Nature of current: According to nature of current, distribution system may
be classified as (a) D.c. distribution system (b) A.c. distribution system.
Now-a-days, A.c. system is universally adopted for distribution of electric
power as it is simpler and more economical than direct current method.
Type of construction: According to type of construction, distribution system
may be classified as (a) overhead system (b) underground system. The
overhead system is generally employed for distribution as it is 5 to 10 times
cheaper than the equivalent underground system. In general, the underground
system is used at places where overhead construction is impracticable or
prohibited by the local laws.
Scheme of connection: According to scheme of connection, the distribution
system may be classified as (a) radial system (b) ring main system (c) inter-
connected system.
Each scheme has its own advantages and disadvantages.
 A.C Distribution
 Now-a-days electrical energy is generated, transmitted and distributed in
the form of alternating current.
 One important reason for the widespread use of alternating current in
preference to direct current is the fact that alternating voltage can be
conveniently changed in magnitude by means of a transformer.
 Transformer has made it possible to transmit A.c power at high voltage
and utilize it at a safe potential.
 High transmission and distribution voltages have greatly reduced the
current in the conductors and the resulting line losses.
 There is no definite line between transmission and distribution according
to voltage or bulk capacity. However, in general, the A.c distribution
system is the electrical system between the step-down substation fed by
the transmission system and the consumers’ meters.
 The a.c. distribution system is classified into
(i) primary distribution system.
(ii) secondary distribution system.
Primary distribution system:
 It is that part of A.c distribution system which operates at voltages
somewhat higher than general utilization and handles large blocks of
electrical energy than the average low-voltage consumer uses. The
voltage used for primary distribution depends upon the amount of power
to be conveyed and the distance of the substation required to be fed.
 The most commonly used primary distribution voltages are 11 kV, 6·6kV
and 3·3 kV.
 Due to economic considerations, primary distribution is carried out by 3-
phase, 3-wire system.
 Electric power from the generating station is transmitted at high voltage
to the substation located in or near the city.
 At this substation, voltage is stepped down to 11 kV with the help of
step-down transformer.
 Power is supplied to various substations for distribution or to big
consumers at this voltage. This forms the high voltage distribution or
primary distribution.
 Fig. 12.2 shows a typical primary distribution system.
Secondary distribution system:
 It is that part of a.c. distribution system which includes the range of
voltages at which the ultimate consumer utilizes the electrical energy
delivered to him. The secondary distribution employs 400/230 V, 3-
phase, 4-wire system.
 Fig. 12.3 shows a typical secondary distribution system. The primary
distribution circuit delivers power to various substations, called
distribution substations. The substations are situated near the
consumers’ localities and contain step-down transformers.
 At each distribution substation, the voltage is stepped down to 400V
and power is delivered by 3-phase, 4-wire A.c. system.
 The voltage between any two phases is 400 V and between any phase
and neutral is 230V. The single phase domestic loads are connected
between any one phase and the neutral, whereas 3-phase 400 V motor
loads are connected across 3- phase lines directly.
 D.C Distribution
 It is a common knowledge that electric power is almost
exclusively generated, transmitted and distributed as A.c.
However, for certain applications, d.c. supply is absolutely
necessary. For instance, d.c. supply is required for the operation of
variable speed machinery (i.e., d.c. motors), for electrochemical
work and for congested areas where storage battery reserves are
necessary.
 For this purpose, A.c. power is converted into d.c power at the
substation by using converting machinery e.g., mercury arc
rectifiers, rotary converters and motor-generator sets.
 The d.c. supply from the substation may be obtained in the form
of,
(i) 2-wire
(ii) 3-wire for distribution
2-Wire D.C system:
As the name implies, this system of distribution
consists of two wires,
One is the outgoing or positive wire and the
other is the return or negative wire. The loads
such as lamps, motors etc. are connected in
parallel between the two wires as shown in Fig.
12.4.
This system is never used for transmission
purposes due to low efficiency but may be
employed for distribution of d.c. power.
3-Wire D.C System:
 It consists of two outers and a middle or neutral wire which is earthed at
the substation. The voltage between the outers is twice the voltage between
either outer and neutral wire as shown in Fig. 12.5.
 The principal advantage of this system is that it makes available two
voltages at the consumer terminals viz., V between any outer and the
neutral and 2V between the outers. Loads requiring high voltage (e.g.,
motors) are connected across the outers, whereas lamps and heating
circuits requiring less voltage are connected between either outer and the
neutral.
Overhead Versus Underground Distribution System
 The distribution system can be overhead or underground.
 Overhead lines are generally mounted on wooden, concrete or
steel poles which are arranged to carry distribution transformers in
addition to the conductors.
 The underground system uses conduits, cables and manholes
under the surface of streets and sidewalks. The choice between
overhead and underground system depends upon a number of
widely differing factors. Therefore, it is desirable to make a
comparison between the two:
(i) Public safety:
The underground system is more safe than overhead system because
all distribution wiring is placed underground and there are little
chances of any hazard.
(ii) Initial cost: The underground system is more expensive due to the
high cost of trenching, conduits, cables, manholes and other special
equipment. The initial cost of an underground system may be five to ten
times than that of an overhead system.
(iii) Flexibility: The overhead system is much more flexible than the
underground system. In the latter case, manholes, duct lines etc., are
permanently placed once installed and the load expansion can only be met
by laying new lines. However, on an overhead system, poles, wires,
transformers etc., can be easily shifted to meet the changes in load
conditions.
(iv) Faults: The chances of faults in underground system are very rare as
the cables are laid underground and are generally provided with better
insulation.
(v) Appearance: The general appearance of an underground system is
better as all the distribution lines are invisible. This factor is exerting
considerable public pressure on electric supply companies to switch over to
underground system.
(vi) Fault location and repairs: In general, there are little chances of faults
in an underground system. However, if a fault does occur, it is difficult to locate
and repair on this system. On an overhead system, the conductors are visible
and easily accessible so that fault locations and repairs can be easily made.
(vii) Current carrying capacity and voltage drop: An overhead
distribution conductor has a considerably higher current carrying capacity than
an underground cable conductor of the same material and cross-section. On the
other hand, underground cable conductor has much lower inductive reactance
than that of an overhead conductor because of closer spacing of
conductors.
(viii) Useful life: The useful life of underground system is much longer than
that of an overhead system. An overhead system may have a useful life of 25
years, whereas an underground system may have a useful life of more than 50
years.
(ix) Maintenance cost: The maintenance cost of underground system is very
low as compared with that of overhead system because of less chances of faults
and service interruptions from wind, ice, lightning as well as from traffic
hazards.
It is clear from the above comparison that each system has its
own advantages and disadvantages.
 However, comparative economics (i.e., annual cost of
operation) is the most powerful factor influencing the choice
between underground and overhead system.
The greater capital cost of underground system prohibits its use
for distribution. But sometimes non-economic factors (e.g.,
general appearance, public safety etc.) exert considerable
influence on choosing underground system.
In general, overhead system is adopted for distribution and the
use of underground system is made only where overhead
construction is impracticable or prohibited by local laws.
Connection Schemes of Distribution System
All distribution of electrical energy is done by constant voltage
system. In practice, the following distribution circuits are generally
used :
(i) Radial System:
• In this system, separate feeders radiate from a single substation
and feed the distributors at one end only. Fig. 12.8 (i) shows a
single line diagram of a radial system for d.c distribution where a
feeder OC supplies a distributor AB at point A. Obviously, the
distributor is fed at one end only i.e., point A is this case.
• Fig. 12.8 (ii) shows a single line diagram of radial system for a.c
distribution. The radial system is employed only when power is
generated at low voltage and the substation is located at the center
of the load.
This is the simplest distribution circuit and has the lowest
initial cost. However, it suffers from the following
drawbacks :
(i) The end of the distributor nearest to the feeding point
will be heavily loaded.
(ii) The consumers are dependent on a single feeder and
single distributor. Therefore, any fault on the feeder or
distributor cuts off supply to the consumers who are on the
side of the fault away from the substation.
(iii) The consumers at the distant end of the distributor
would be subjected to serious voltage fluctuations when
the load on the distributor changes.
(ii) Ring main system:
• In this system, the primaries of distribution transformers form a loop.
 The loop circuit starts from the substation bus-bars, makes a loop through
the area to be served, and returns to the substation. Fig. 12.9 shows the
single line diagram of ring main system for A.c distribution where
substation supplies to the closed feeder LMNOPQRS.
 The distributors are tapped from different points M, O and Q of the feeder
through distribution transformers. The ring main system has the following
advantages:
i. There are less voltage fluctuations at consumer’s terminals.
ii. The system is very reliable as each distributor is fed via *two feeders. In
the event of fault on any section of the feeder, the continuity of supply is
maintained.
For example:
Suppose that fault occurs at any point F of section SLM of the feeder. Then
section SLM of the feeder can be isolated for repairs and at the same time
continuity of supply is maintained to all the consumers via the feeder
SRQPONM.
(iii) Interconnected system.
• When the feeder ring is energized by two or more than two
generating stations or substations, it is called inter-connected
system.
• Fig. 12.10 shows the single line diagram of interconnected system
where the closed feeder ring ABCD is supplied by two substations
S1 and S2 at points D and C respectively.
• Distributors are connected to points O, P, Q and R of the feeder
ring through distribution transformers.
• The interconnected system has the following advantages :
(a) It increases the service reliability.
(b) Any area fed from one generating station during peak load hours
can be fed from the other.
Requirements of a Distribution System
A considerable amount of effort is necessary to maintain an electric power
supply within the requirements of various types of consumers. Some of the
requirements of a good distribution system are proper voltage, availability
of power on demand and reliability.
(i) Proper voltage :
• One important requirement of a distribution system is that voltage
variations at consumer’s terminals should be as low as possible.
• The changes in voltage are generally caused due to the variation of load
on the system. Low voltage causes loss of revenue, inefficient lighting
and possible burning out of motors.
• High voltage causes lamps to burn out permanently and may cause
failure of other appliances. Therefore, a good distribution system should
ensure that the voltage variations at consumers terminals are within
permissible limits.
 The statutory limit of voltage variations is ± 6% of the rated value at the
consumer’s terminals. Thus, if the declared voltage is 230 V, then the
highest voltage of the consumer should not exceed 244 V while the
lowest voltage of the consumer should not be less than 216 V.
ii) Availability of power on demand:
• Power must be available to the consumers in any amount that they may
require from time to time.
• For example, motors may be started or shut down, lights may be turned
on or off, without advance warning to the electric supply company.
• As electrical energy cannot be stored, therefore, the distribution system
must be capable of supplying load demands of the consumers.
• This necessitates that operating staff must continuously study load
patterns to predict in advance those major load changes that follow the
known schedules.
(iii) Reliability:
• Modern industry is almost dependent on electric power for its
operation.
• Homes and office buildings are lighted, heated, cooled and
ventilated by electric power.
• This calls for reliable service. Unfortunately, electric power,
like everything else that is man-made, can never be absolutely
reliable. However, the reliability can be improved to a
considerable extent by,
(a) Interconnected system.
(b) Reliable automatic control system.
(c) Providing additional reserve facilities.
What is a Distribution Transformer?
Definition: A distribution transformer is also known as a typical kind of isolation
transformer. The main function of this transformer is to alter the high voltage to
the normal voltage like 220/400 V to use in electric power distribution. In the
distribution system, there are different kinds of transformers available like single
phase, 3-phase, underground, pad-mounted, pole-mounted transformer.

Generally, these transformers are available in different sizes with efficiencies

along with insulating oil. These transformers are available in various sizes and
efficiencies. The selection of this transformer mainly lies in the requirement and
budget of the user. There are four types of distribution transformer
connections available like star-star, delta-delta, star-delta, delta-star.
Types of Distribution Transformer
Based on the application or requirement, these transformers
are categorized into different types like single phase, three
phases, underground, pad-mounted, pole-mounted
transformers.

Single Phase
These transformers are specially used for networks wherever
a three-phase supply is not required. Usually, these are used
for repairing overhead distribution loads in residential. These
are also applicable in industrial lighting, light commercial loads
& power applications.
Three Phase

This kind of transformer is used to hold electrical energy from

the main distribution circuit to a minor distribution circuit. This
type of transformer transmits the current to a secondary
distribution circuit and also reduces the voltage of the
primary distribution circuit. These transformers reduce the
voltage supply for the primary circuit based on the consumer
requirement.

This voltage always changes & can be

dissimilar for the users of commercial,
residential & light industry. These
transformers work on different levels
of voltage & frequency based on the
standards existing in different
countries.
Pad-Mounted
This type of transformer includes a locked steel cupboard
that is arranged on a concrete pad. This type of transformer
is installed in places where they do not have space for a
fenced enclosure. This transformer is used with electric
power distribution lines at an overhead electrical line for
reducing the primary voltage to supply for the customers. A
single transformer of this type can serve many homes/a
large building. The power rating of this transformer ranges
from 75 kVA to 5000 kVA and includes fixed switches &
fuses.
Pole Mounted
These transformers are mounted
on an electrical service pole at the
height of the overhead cables.
These are used for changing high
distribution voltage to low like
220/400 volts power. These types
of transformers are used in a wide
rural area, ranges from 16 kVA to
100kVA. These are available in
small size and easy to fit on
single-pole structures. These
transformers are reliable to harsh
climates when they used in
remote areas.
APPLICATIONS OF DISTRIBUTION
TRANSFORMERS
Distribution transformers have many important applications in the
residential, commercial, and industrial sectors.

Industries
Different types of industries use different types of electric machinery
that require discrete voltage levels. The power generated from power
plants is at high levels and to enable the sufficient voltage supply to the
industrial machinery, three-phase distribution transformers are used.
Based on the loads or equipment used in the specific industry, the
capacity of the distribution transformer should be selected to ensure
adequate power voltage.

Educational Institutions
Educational institutions including schools, colleges, and other
universities need computers, lab equipment, and other such facilities.
Moreover, other sophisticated infrastructures like lighting, air-
conditioning ventilation means, elevators are common.
Therefore, specific distribution transformers are necessary to supply
APPLICATIONS OF DISTRIBUTION
TRANSFORMERS

Power Plant Applications

As the voltage at the power generation stations should be maintained
for various applications, distribution transformers are used. They are
useful for industrial power generation, mechanical drive solutions, oil
and gas applications, and utility power generation. Several distributed
energy solutions are also feasible with efficient and customized
distribution transformers.
DISCOS Substations
Distribution transformers decrease the voltage levels at the DISCOS
substations to transmit the ample power voltage. 11kV, 22kV, and
33kV that are most suitably used for distribution networks as per
requirement.
Solar and Wind Applications
Renewable power sources have great significance nowadays.
Electricity generation from solar and wind power plants need large-
sized units to step-down the voltage to enable distribution.
Solar and wind applications, especially, are prevailing today that need
different capacities of distribution transformers. Solar dryers,
APPLICATIONS OF DISTRIBUTION
TRANSFORMERS

Commercial Complexes
Commercial complexes including shopping malls, movie
theatres, clubs, restaurants, hotels, multiplexes, etc. need varied
sizes of distribution transformers to adequately allow power
voltage to elevators, video and audio players, electric and
electronic machinery, and other appliances.

Residential Houses and Villas

House-hold power-based appliances work appropriately with the
effective voltage-transfer by distribution transformers. Gated
communities, apartments, villas, and other such residential
housing colonies need such transformers. Based on the
appliances or load capacities, the capacity of the distribution
transformers is designed and arranged in appropriate positions
to ensure better power transfer.