Chapter 2

Sampling
 Sampling

Sampling is the process of selecting a small

number of elements from a larger defined target
group of elements such that the information
gathered from the small group will allow judgments
to be made about the larger groups
 Basics of Sampling Theory

Population

Element

Defined target
population

Sampling unit

Sampling frame
 Sampling Error

Sampling error is any type of bias that is attributable

to mistakes in either drawing a sample or determining
the sample size.
 Developing a Sampling Plan
1. Define the Population of Interest
2. Identify a Sampling Frame (if possible)
3. Select a Sampling Method
4. Determine Sample Size
5. Execute the Sampling Plan
 Defining Population of Interest
• Population of interest is entirely dependent on
Management Problem, Research Problems,
and Research Design.
• Some Bases for Defining Population:
– Geographic Area
– Demographics
– Usage/Lifestyle
– Awareness
 Sampling Frame
• A list of population elements (people, companies,
houses, cities, etc.) from which units to be sampled
can be selected.
• Difficult to get an accurate list.
• Sample frame error occurs when certain elements of
the population are accidentally omitted or not
included on the list.
• See Survey Sampling International for some good
examples
[Link]
 Sampling Methods

Probability Nonprobability
sampling sampling
 Types of Sampling Methods
Probability Nonprobability
• Simple random • Convenience
sampling sampling
• Systematic random • Judgment
sampling sampling
• Stratified random • Quota sampling
sampling • Snowball sampling
• Cluster sampling
 Simple Random Sampling

Simple random sampling is a method of

probability sampling in which
every unit has an equal nonzero
chance of being selected
 Systematic Random Sampling

Systematic random sampling is a

method of
probability sampling
in which the defined
target population is ordered
and the sample is selected
according to position using a skip interval
 Steps in Drawing a Systematic Random Sample

• 1: Obtain a list of units that contains an acceptable frame

of the target population

• 2: Determine the number of units in the list and the

desired sample size

• 3: Compute the skip interval

• 4: Determine a random start point

• 5: Beginning at the start point, select the units by

choosing each unit that corresponds to the skip interval
 Stratified Random Sampling

Stratified random sampling is a

method of
probability sampling
in which the population is divided
into different subgroups and samples
are selected from each
 Steps in Drawing a Stratified Random
Sample
• 1: Divide the target population into
homogeneous subgroups or strata
• 2: Draw random samples fro each stratum
• 3: Combine the samples from each stratum
into a single sample of the target
population
 Cluster Sampling
• Cluster sampling is a sampling technique used when
"natural" groupings are evident in a statistical
population.
• It is often used in marketing research.
• It divide population into Comparable groups:
Schools, Cities etc..
• cluster sampling is to reduce the average cost per
interview
• the technique given more accurate results when most
of the variation in the population is within the groups,
Nonprobability Sampling Methods

Convenience sampling relies

upon convenience and access

Judgment sampling relies upon belief

that participants fit characteristics

Quota sampling emphasizes representation

of specific characteristics

Snowball sampling relies upon respondent

referrals of others with like characteristics
• Convenience samples: samples drawn at the convenience
of the interviewer. People tend to make the selection at
familiar locations and to choose respondents who are like
themselves.
• Judgment samples: samples that require a judgment or an
“educated guess” on the part of the interviewer as to who
should represent the population. Also, “judges” (informed
individuals) may be asked to suggest who should be in the
sample.
• Quota samples: samples that set a specific number of
certain types of individuals to be interviewed
• snowball sampling: is a technique for developing a
research sample where existing study subjects recruit future
subjects from among their acquaintances.
 Factors to Consider in Sample Design

Research objectives Degree of accuracy

Resources Time frame

Knowledge of
target population Research scope

Statistical analysis needs

 Data Collection
• Data collection possibilities are wide and
varied with any one method of collection not
inherently better than any other
• Each has pros and cons that must be weighed
up in view of a rich and complex context

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 The Data Collection Process
• All methods of collection require rigorous and
systematic design and execution that includes

– thorough planning
– well considered development
– effective piloting
– weighed modification
– deliberate implementation and execution
– appropriate management and analysis

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 Surveys
• Surveying involves gathering information from
individuals using a questionnaire

• Surveys can
– reach a large number of respondents
– generate standardized, quantifiable, empirical data - as
well as some qualitative data
– and offer confidentiality / anonymity

• Designing survey instruments capable of generating

credible data, however, can be difficult

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 Survey Types
• Surveys can be

– descriptive or explanatory
– involve entire populations or samples of
populations
– capture a moment or map trends
– can be administered in a number of ways

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 Survey Construction
• Survey construction involves

– formulating questions and response categories

– writing up background information and instruction
– working through organization and length
– determining layout and design

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 Interviewing
• Interviewing involves asking respondents a series of
open-ended questions
• Interviews can generate both standardized
quantifiable data, and more in-depth qualitative data
• However, the complexities of people and the
complexities of communication can create many
opportunities for miscommunication and
misinterpretation

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 Interview Types
• Interviews can range from
– formal to informal
– structured to unstructured
– can be one on one or involve groups

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 Conducting Interviews
• When conducting your interviews you will
need to
– question, prompt, and probe in ways that help you
gather rich data
– actively listen and make sense of what is being
said
– manage the overall process

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 Observation
• Observation relies on the researchers’ ability
to gather data though their senses - and
allows researchers to document actual
behaviour rather than responses related to
behaviour

• However, the observed can act differently

when surveilled, and observations can be
tainted by a researcher’s worldview

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 Observation Types
• Observation can range from
– non-participant to participant
– candid to covert
– from structured to unstructured

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 The Observation Process
• The observation process is sometimes treated
casually, but is a method that needs to be
treated as rigorously as any other
• The process should include planning,
observing, recording, reflecting, and
authenticating

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 Experimentation
• Experimentation explores cause and effect
relationships by manipulating independent
variables in order to see if there is a
corresponding effect on a dependent variable

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 Experimentation
• Pure experimentation requires both a
controlled environment and the use of a
randomly assigned control group
• This can be difficult to achieve in human
centred experiments conducted in the real-
world

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 Real-World Experiments
• There are many experiments that can only be
carried out in the messy uncontrolled
environments of the real-world, so the search
for cause and effect will require tradeoffs
between real-world contexts and a controlled
environment

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questionnaire surveys (includes mail)

Advantages:

• Quick and easy to administer.

• Can get a large amount of information in a short time.
• Allows for employee participation.
• Does not require trained interviewer.
• Relatively less expensive.

Disadvantages:

• Quality of information related to the quality of the questionnaire.

• Must have high school reading and writing ability to complete one.
• Often needs follow-up interview or observation.
• May be difficult to construct.
• May have low response rate.
• Responses may be incomplete.
• Responses may be difficult to interpret (open-ended)

Online surveys:
• The use of the Internet has made a huge difference to the way surveys are
conducted and has
become a science unto itself.
• quick to implement. Lower cost, higher
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Face-to-face interviews :
Most informative method of qualitative data collection because
the human interaction of face-to-face interviews provides the opportunity to
probe for insights and build on responses for greater value.
Door-to-door: People are contacted at home and in person (abandoned in
Developed due to high cost of transport, staff)
Street / shopping mall intercepts: Popular in Developed Economies (some
Malls consider a nuisance).
Telephone interviews are less time consuming and less expensive and the
researcher has ready access to anyone on the planet who has a telephone.
Disadvantages are that the response rate is not as high as the face-to- face
interview but considerably higher than the mailed questionnaire. The
sample may be biased to the extent that people without phones are part of
the population about whom the researcher wants to draw inferences.
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Web based questionnaires :
A new and inevitably growing methodology is the use of Internet based
research. This would mean receiving an e-mail on which you would click on an
address that would take you to a secure web-site to fill in a questionnaire. This type
of research is often quicker and less detailed. Some disadvantages of this method
include the exclusion of people who do not have a computer or are unable to access
a computer. Also the validity of such surveys are in question as people might be in a
hurry to complete it and so might not give accurate responses.

Computer Assisted Personal Interviewing (CAPI): is a form of personal

interviewing, but instead of completing a questionnaire, the interviewer brings along
a laptop or hand-held computer to enter the information directly into the database.
This method saves time involved in processing the data, as well as saving the
interviewer from carrying around hundreds of questionnaires. However, this type of
data collection method can be expensive to set up and requires that interviewers have
computer and typing skills.

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