Chapter 3
The Biological Basis
of Behaviour: Part 1
1. Describe the various parts of the neuron and their functions.
2. Describe the neural impulse.
3. Describe how neurons communicate at synapses.
4. Discuss the common neurotransmitters and some of their functions.
5. Provide an overview of the central nervous system, including its divisions
and subdivisions.
Learning 6. Distinguish between the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous
system.
Outcome 7. Summarise the key functions of the medulla, pons, cerebellum and
midbrain.
s 8. Summarise the key functions of the thalamus and hypothalamus.
9. Describe the nature and location of the limbic system, and summarise some
of their key functions.
10. Name the four lobes in the cerebral cortex, and identify some of their key
functions.
11. Describe hemispheric specialisation with regards to handling cognitive tasks.
12. Summarise evidence on the brain’s plasticity
13. Provide a brief overview of the endocrine system
14. Provide an overview of the hereditary vs environment debate
Brain Facts
• Average weight: 1.3kg
• Average volume:
• Women: 1130 cubic cm (~1.13L)
• Men: 1260 cubic cm (~1.26L)
• Differences due to average body size NOT intelligence.
• Total length of mylenated axons(age 20):
• Women: ~1.49 km
• Men: ~1.76 km
• Differences due to average body size NOT intelligence.
• Consistency similar to soft jelly
• Uses both chemical and electrical signals
• The brain feels no pain; brain is made up of 75% of water
• Humans have the largest brain to body size
Cells
•Cells of nervous
system fall into two
categories:
• neurons and
• glia
Neurons
Neurons
• “Neurons are the basic units of the nervous
system”
• “the neuron is a nerve cell that is specialised
for processing information”
• “it receives, integrates and transmits info”
• Estimates at 86-100 billion neurons in human
brain.
• Vast majority communicate only with other
neurons
• Information moves from dendrites to soma,
along axon transmitted to dendrites of other
Did you know - There are as many neurons in the human cells at meeting points called synapses
brain as stars in the Milky Way (Serendip, 2014)
Neurons Cont’d
• Dendrites:
• Receive information and send it towards the cell body/soma.
• Cell body:
• which sends information along to axon. It also contains a
nucleus:
• which contains the cell’s genetic material
• instructions for running processes
• it directs the manufacturing of substances that the neuron
needs for growth and maintenance
• It also contains chemicals common to most cells
• Myelin sheath:
• Layer of fat cells that encase and insulate most axons.
• Serves to speed up transmission of impulses.
Neurons
cont’
• elongated part of the neuron that carries
Axon: impulses away from the cell body to other
cells
• the end transmission part that produces
Axon terminal neurotransmitters and releases them into
button: the synapse
[Link]
• is the junction where information is
Synapse: transmitted from one neuron to another
“Glia are cells found throughout the nervous system
that provide various types of support for neurons”
• Account for over 50% of brain’s volume
• Many functions :
• nourish neurons,
Glia • remove waste,
(Glia = glue) • provide insulation around neurons,
• role in development of nervous system in human
embryo;
• contributes to information processing in nervous
system
• considered 'servants' to the neurons due to their
many roles in support, buffering, housekeeping,
and nourishing
• Recent research suggests that some glia may
also send and receive chemical signals, and
can send impulses on to other glial cells;
• also have a role in memory formation and in
chronic pain
Glia…
• Although vital, crucial work is handled by
neurons
Did you know: The brain contains at least ten times more glia
than neurons
([Link], 2012)
Glia & Neural network
Oligodendrocytes (1)
Axons (2)
Neurons (3)
Myelin (4)
Microglia (5)
Astrocytes (6)
Synapses (7)
Local blood vessels (8)
Types of Glia Glia
• Astrocytes:
• Blood Brain Barrier
• Oligodendrocytes:
• CNS myelination
• Microglial:
• injury repair
• Schwann cells:
• peripheral myelination
Neural impulse
Neural impulse is a:
“complex electrochemical reaction”
Inside and outside the neuron are
fluids containing electrically charged
atoms and molecules called IONS
They flow back and forth across the cell membrane – pos sodium & potassium, neg chloride
Don’t flow at the same rate, thus slightly higher concentration of negatively charged ions
inside neuron.
Therefore - neuron at rest is a battery of potential energy
Resting Potential: “is a stable, negative charge when the cell is inactive”
At rest no messages are being sent
Neural Impulse
• Resting Potential: the stable negative charge of an inactive neuron.
(-70 millivolts = 1/20 flashlight battery)
Neural impulse
Action Potential
When the neuron is stimulated, channels
in cell membrane open and + ions (sodium)
from outside neuron move into neuron ….
For an instant the neuron’s charge is less negative, and eventually positive, and
action potential is created
Action potential = “very brief shift in a neuron’s electrical charge that travels
along an axon”
Image – spark along a trail of gunpowder
Neural impulse
• Action potential: “brief shift in neuron’s electrical charge that travels along an
axon”
K = Potassium
Na = Sodium
Neural impulse
Cell signal
transmission
• Combination of chemical and electrical energy
• Relies on “All-or-none” principle – i.e. cant half fire a gun
• Once an electrical impulse reaches a certain level of intensity, it fires and moves all the way down
the axon without losing any of its intensity
• Action potentials are all the same size, although neurons can convey information about the strength
of a stimulus
• Neurons can convey information about the strength of a stimulus - by changing rate and timing of
signals.
• Similar to Morse code, where differences in signal are conveyed by changing rate and timing of
signals
... . . . . . ........ . . ... ... . .. .. . . .. . ... ... .. ... .. .. .. .. ....... .. .. ..... .... .... ...... ... ... .... .....
... . . . . . . . . ... . .. .. .. .. .... .... ....... ... ... . .... ... .. .. . .
Neural impulse
• After firing, cell membrane channels close
• Absolute refractory period:
• “minimum length of time after an action potential
during which another action potential cannot begin”
• Down time… 1 or 2 milliseconds.
• Relative refractory period
• The neuron can fire
• But, more intense stimulation is required to initiate
the firing of the neuron
The synapse: where neurons
meet
[Link]
The synapse: where neurons
meet
“Tiny junctions between neurons, generally the axon of one neuron
meets the dendrites or cell body of another neuron”
• Neuron connections don't physically touch
• Synaptic cleft – microscopic gap between terminal button of one neuron and
cell membrane of another neuron
Neural communication at synapses:
• Signals cross the gap to communicate
• Neuron sending signal is the presynaptic neuron
• Neuron receiving signal is the postsynaptic neuron
Arrival of action potential at axons terminal button triggers release of
neurotransmitters
• (chemicals that transmit information from one neuron to another)
The synapse: where neurons meet
Weiten, 2022, p94
Neurotransmitters and Synaptic
Vesicles
Synaptic
Vesicles
Neurotransmitter
Molecules
Receptor
sites
Weiten, 2022, p94
Receiving signals: postsynaptic potential
Synthesis and storage of
1
neurotransmitter molecules Reuptake of neurotransmitters
in synaptic vesicles
5 sponged up by the
presynaptic neuron
Release of neurotransmitter
2 molecules into synaptic cleft Inactivation (by enzymes) or
4 removal (drifting away) of
neurotransmitters
Binding of neurotransmitters
3 at receptor sites on
postsynaptic membrane
Neural communication at synapses
• Excitatory or inhibitory effects can be produced at
the receiving synapse:
• Excitatory effect: positive voltage shift that
increases the chances that the receiving
neuron will fire an action potential
• Inhibitory effect: negative voltage shift that
decreases the chances….
• Neuron must integrate excitatory or inhibitory
signals arriving at the synapse and decide whether
to fire or not
• Neurons form complex chains – perceptions,
thoughts and actions depend on patterns of neural
activity in these networks
Neurotransmitters and their
functions
• Neurotransmitters are fundamental to behaviour
• Specific neurotransmitters function at specific kinds of
synapses
• Neurotransmitter binding to a receptor cite works like a lock
and key – very specific to specific cites
• Deliver signals at specific locations
• Some chemicals imitate (agonist) and others block
(antagonist) the actions of a neurotransmitter
Neurotransmitters and
their functions
• Neurotransmitters are fundamental to behaviour
• Specific neurotransmitters function at specific kinds of
synapses
• Neurotransmitter binding to a receptor cite works like a
lock and key – very specific to specific cites
• Deliver signals at specific locations
• Some chemicals imitate (agonist) and others block
(antagonist) the actions of a neurotransmitter
[Link]
Common neurotransmitters and
their functions
Acetylecholine (ACh)
Released by motor neurons controlling skeletal muscles (voluntary muscles)
Contributes to the regulation of attention, arousal, memory
Some ACh receptors stimulated by nicotine
Disorder = Alzheimers disease
Dopamine (DA)
Contributes to control of voluntary movement
Cocaine and amphetamine elevate activity of DA synapses
Dopamine circuits in medial forebrain bundle characterised as “reward pathway”
Disorders – Parkinsonism, Schizophrenic disorders, Addictive disorders
Norepinephrine (NE)
Contributes to modulation of mood and arousal
Cocaine and amphetamines elevate activity of NE synapses
Disorder = Depressive disorders
Common neurotransmitters and
their functions
Serotonin
Involved in regulation of sleep and wakefulness, eating and aggression
Prozac and similar antidepressant drugs affect serotonin circuits
Disorders = Depressive disorders, Obsessive-Compulsive disorders, Eating disorders
GABA
Serves as widely distributed inhibitory transmitter, contributing to regulation of
anxiety and sleep/arousal
Produces inhibitory postsynaptic potentials
Valium and similar antianxiety drugs work at GABA synapses
Disorders = Anxiety disorders
Endorphins
Resemble opiate drugs in structure and effects
Play role in pain relief and response to stress
Contribute to regulation of eating and behaviour