Lecture 6

 Requirements Modeling: Scenarios, Information,

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Requirements Analysis
 Requirements analysis
 specifies software’s operational characteristics
 indicates software's interface with other system elements
 establishes constraints that software must meet
 Requirements analysis allows the software engineer
(called an analyst or modeler in this role) to:
 elaborate on basic requirements established during earlier
requirement engineering tasks
 build models that depict user scenarios, functional
activities, problem classes and their relationships, system
and class behavior, and the flow of data as it is
transformed.

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A Bridge

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Rules of Thumb
 The model should focus on requirements that are visible
within the problem or business domain. The level of
abstraction should be relatively high.
 Each element of the analysis model should add to an overall
understanding of software requirements and provide insight
into the information domain, function and behavior of the
system.
 Delay consideration of infrastructure and other non-functional
models until design.
 Minimize coupling throughout the system.
 Be certain that the analysis model provides value to all
stakeholders.
 Keep the model as simple as it can be.

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Domain Analysis
Software domain analysis is the identification,
analysis, and specification of common
requirements from a specific application
domain, typically for reuse on multiple projects
within that application domain . . . [Object-
oriented domain analysis is] the identification,
analysis, and specification of common, reusable
capabilities within a specific application domain,
in terms of common objects, classes,
subassemblies, and frameworks ...
Donald Firesmith

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Domain Analysis
 Define the domain to be investigated.
 Collect a representative sample of applications
in the domain.
 Analyze each application in the sample.
 Develop an analysis model for the objects.

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Elements of Requirements Analysis

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Scenario-Based Modeling
“[Use-cases] are simply an aid to defining what exists
outside the system (actors) and what should be
performed by the system (use-cases).” Ivar Jacobson
(1) What should we write about?
(2) How much should we write about it?
(3) How detailed should we make our description?
(4) How should we organize the description?

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What to Write About?
 Inception and elicitation—provide you with the
information you’ll need to begin writing use cases.
 Requirements gathering meetings, and other
requirements engineering mechanisms are used to
 identify stakeholders
 define the scope of the problem
 specify overall operational goals
 establish priorities
 outline all known functional requirements, and
 describe the things (objects) that will be manipulated by the
system.
 To begin developing a set of use cases, list the functions
or activities performed by a specific actor.

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How Much to Write About?
 As further conversations with the stakeholders
progress, the requirements gathering team
develops use cases for each of the functions
noted.
 In general, use cases are written first in an
informal narrative fashion.
 If more formality is required, the same use
case is rewritten using a structured format
similar to the one proposed.

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Use-Cases
 a scenario that describes a “thread of usage” for
a system
 actors represent roles people or devices play as
the system functions
 users can play a number of different roles for a
given scenario

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Developing a Use-Case
 What are the main tasks or functions that are performed by
the actor?
 What system information will the the actor acquire,
produce or change?
 Will the actor have to inform the system about changes in
the external environment?
 What information does the actor desire from the system?
 Does the actor wish to be informed about unexpected
changes?

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Use-Case Diagram

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 Activity Diagram
Supplements the
use case by
providing a
graphical
representation of
the flow of
interaction within
a specific
scenario

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 Swimlane Diagrams
Allows the modeler to represent the flow of activities described by the use-case
and at the same time indicate which actor (if there are multiple actors involved
in a specific use-case) or analysis class has responsibility for the action
described by an activity rectangle

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Data Modeling
 examines data objects independently of
processing
 focuses attention on the data domain
 creates a model at the customer’s level
of abstraction
 indicates how data objects relate to one
another

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What is a Data Object?
 a representation of almost any composite
information that must be understood by software.
 composite information—something that has a number
of different properties or attributes
 can be an external entity (e.g., anything that
produces or consumes information), a thing (e.g., a
report or a display), an occurrence (e.g., a
telephone call) or event (e.g., an alarm), a role (e.g.,
salesperson), an organizational unit (e.g.,
accounting department), a place (e.g., a
warehouse), or a structure (e.g., a file).
 The description of the data object incorporates the
data object and all of its attributes.
 A data object encapsulates data only—there is no
reference within a data object to operations that act
on the data.

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Data Objects and Attributes
A data object contains a set of
attributes that act as an aspect,
quality, characteristic, or descriptor of
the object
object: automobile
attributes:
make
model
body type
price
options code

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What is a Relationship?
 Data objects are connected to one another in
different ways.
 A connection is established between person and car
because the two objects are related.
• A person owns a car
• A person is insured to drive a car
 The relationships owns and insured to drive
define the relevant connections between
person and car.
 Several instances of a relationship can exist
 Objects can be related in many different ways

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ERD Notation
One common form:
(0, m)
object1 relationship object 2
(1, 1)

attribute
Another common form:

object1 relationship
object 2
(0, m) (1, 1)

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Building an ERD
 Level 1—model all data objects (entities)
and their “connections” to one another
 Level 2—model all entities and
relationships
 Level 3—model all entities, relationships,
and the attributes that provide further depth

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The ERD: An Example
request
Customer places
for service
(1,1) (1,m)
(1,1)
standard (1,n) work
task table generates
order
(1,1) (1,1) (1,1)
selected work (1,w)
consists
from
(1,w) tasks of

(1,i)
materials lists

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Class-Based Modeling
 Class-based modeling represents:
 objects that the system will manipulate
 operations (also called methods or services) that
will be applied to the objects to effect the
manipulation
 relationships (some hierarchical) between the
objects
 collaborations that occur between the classes that
are defined.
 The elements of a class-based model include
classes and objects, attributes, operations,
CRC models, collaboration diagrams and
packages.
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Identifying Analysis Classes
 Examining the usage scenarios developed
as part of the requirements model and
perform a "grammatical parse" [Abb83]
 Classes are determined by underlining each
noun or noun phrase and entering it into a
simple table.
 Synonyms should be noted.
 If the class (noun) is required to implement a
solution, then it is part of the solution space;
otherwise, if a class is necessary only to
describe a solution, it is part of the problem
space.
 But what should we look for once all of
the nouns have been isolated?
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Manifestations of Analysis Classes
 Analysis classes manifest themselves in one of the
following ways:
• External entities (e.g., other systems, devices, people) that
produce or consume information
• Things (e.g, reports, displays, letters, signals) that are part
of the information domain for the problem
• Occurrences or events (e.g., a property transfer or the
completion of a series of robot movements) that occur
within the context of system operation
• Roles (e.g., manager, engineer, salesperson) played by
people who interact with the system
• Organizational units (e.g., division, group, team) that are
relevant to an application
• Places (e.g., manufacturing floor or loading dock) that
establish the context of the problem and the overall function
• Structures (e.g., sensors, four-wheeled vehicles, or
computers) that define a class of objects or related classes
of objects

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Potential Classes
 Retained information. The potential class will be useful during
analysis only if information about it must be remembered so that
the system can function.
 Needed services. The potential class must have a set of identifiable
operations that can change the value of its attributes in some way.
 Multiple attributes. During requirement analysis, the focus should
be on "major" information; a class with a single attribute may, in
fact, be useful during design, but is probably better represented as
an attribute of another class during the analysis activity.
 Common attributes. A set of attributes can be defined for the
potential class and these attributes apply to all instances of the
class.
 Common operations. A set of operations can be defined for the
potential class and these operations apply to all instances of the
class.
 Essential requirements. External entities that appear in the
problem space and produce or consume information essential to
the operation of any solution for the system will almost always be
defined as classes in the requirements model.

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Defining Attributes
 Attributes describe a class that has been
selected for inclusion in the analysis
model.
 build two different classes for professional
baseball players
• For Playing Statistics software: name,
position, batting average, fielding percentage, years
played, and games played might be relevant
• For Pension Fund software: average salary,
credit toward full vesting, pension plan options chosen,
mailing address, and the like.

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Defining Operations
 Do a grammatical parse of a processing
narrative and look at the verbs
 Operations can be divided into four
broad categories:
 (1) operations that manipulate data in some
way (e.g., adding, deleting, reformatting,
selecting)
 (2) operations that perform a computation
 (3) operations that inquire about the state of
an object, and
 (4) operations that monitor an object for the
occurrence of a controlling event.
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CRC Models
 Class-responsibility-collaborator (CRC)
modeling [Wir90] provides a simple means
for identifying and organizing the classes
that are relevant to system or product
requirements. Ambler [Amb95] describes
CRC modeling in the following way:
 A CRC model is really a collection of standard
index cards that represent classes. The cards
are divided into three sections. Along the top of
the card you write the name of the class. In the
body of the card you list the class
responsibilities on the left and the collaborators
on the right.

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CRC Modeling

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Class Types
 Entity classes, also called model or business classes, are
extracted directly from the statement of the problem (e.g.,
FloorPlan and Sensor).
 Boundary classes are used to create the interface (e.g.,
interactive screen or printed reports) that the user sees and
interacts with as the software is used.
 Controller classes manage a “unit of work” [UML03] from start to
finish. That is, controller classes can be designed to manage
 the creation or update of entity objects;
 the instantiation of boundary objects as they obtain information from
entity objects;
 complex communication between sets of objects;
 validation of data communicated between objects or between the
user and the application.

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Responsibilities
 System intelligence should be distributed across classes
to best address the needs of the problem
 Each responsibility should be stated as generally as
possible
 Information and the behavior related to it should reside
within the same class
 Information about one thing should be localized with a
single class, not distributed across multiple classes.
 Responsibilities should be shared among related
classes, when appropriate.

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Collaborations
 Classes fulfill their responsibilities in one of two ways:
 A class can use its own operations to manipulate its own
attributes, thereby fulfilling a particular responsibility, or
 a class can collaborate with other classes.
 Collaborations identify relationships between classes
 Collaborations are identified by determining whether a class
can fulfill each responsibility itself
 three different generic relationships between classes [WIR90]:
 the is-part-of relationship
 the has-knowledge-of relationship
 the depends-upon relationship

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Composite Aggregate Class

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Associations and Dependencies
 Two analysis classes are often related to one
another in some fashion
 In UML these relationships are called associations
 Associations can be refined by indicating multiplicity
(the term cardinality is used in data modeling
 In many instances, a client-server relationship
exists between two analysis classes.
 In such cases, a client-class depends on the server-
class in some way and a dependency relationship is
established

These slides are designed to accompany Software Engineering: A Practitioner’s Approach, 7/e
(McGraw-Hill, 2009). Slides copyright 2009 by Roger Pressman. 35
Analysis Packages
 Various elements of the analysis model (e.g., use-cases,
analysis classes) are categorized in a manner that
packages them as a grouping
 The plus sign preceding the analysis class name in each
package indicates that the classes have public visibility
and are therefore accessible from other packages.
 Other symbols can precede an element within a
package. A minus sign indicates that an element is
hidden from all other packages and a # symbol indicates
that an element is accessible only to packages
contained within a given package.

These slides are designed to accompany Software Engineering: A Practitioner’s Approach, 7/e
(McGraw-Hill, 2009). Slides copyright 2009 by Roger Pressman. 36
Reviewing the CRC Model
 All participants in the review (of the CRC model) are given a subset of the CRC
model index cards.
 Cards that collaborate should be separated (i.e., no reviewer should have two
cards that collaborate).
 All use-case scenarios (and corresponding use-case diagrams) should be
organized into categories.
 The review leader reads the use-case deliberately.
 As the review leader comes to a named object, she passes a token to the
person holding the corresponding class index card.
 When the token is passed, the holder of the class card is asked to describe the
responsibilities noted on the card.
 The group determines whether one (or more) of the responsibilities satisfies
the use-case requirement.
 If the responsibilities and collaborations noted on the index cards cannot
accommodate the use-case, modifications are made to the cards.
 This may include the definition of new classes (and corresponding CRC index
cards) or the specification of new or revised responsibilities or collaborations
on existing cards.

These slides are designed to accompany Software Engineering: A Practitioner’s Approach, 7/e
(McGraw-Hill, 2009). Slides copyright 2009 by Roger Pressman. 37