Lesson 2
Ultrasonic Principles
Ultrasonic Vibrations & Displacement
In ultrasonic testing we use something called “Ultrasonic
Vibrations.” We must know two facts about a vibration :
• A vibration is a back and forth movement.
• A vibration is energy in motion.
A Depression of a surface from its normal position is
called a Displacement
Ultrasonic Vibrations & Displacement (Cont’d…)
A depression of a surface from
its normal position is called a
displacement.
Vibrations pass through a solid
material as a succession of
particle displacements. This
can be visualized from the
figure.
Ultrasonic Vibrations & Displacement (Cont’d…)
The structure of a material is actually many small
particles or groups of atoms.
These particles have normal or rest positions, and can
be displaced from these positions by some force. When
the force is removed, the particles will tend to return to
their original positions.
Ultrasonic Vibrations & Displacement (Cont’d…)
Energy is transmitted through a solid material by a series
of small material displacement within the material.
The transmission of ultrasonic vibrations through a
material is related to the elastic properties of the material.
If you tap a metal surface, the surface moves inward,
causing a displacement.
Ultrasonic Vibrations & Displacement (Cont’d…)
Since metal is elastic the surface will tend to move back to its
original (rest) position. The surface will also move through the
original position and move to a maximum distance in the
opposite direction.
This complete sequence of movements is defined as a cycle.
The time required for something to move through one
complete cycle is called the period.
Frequency and Wavelength
Example : If the swinging ball above moves over path ABCDE
in one second, then the period of the cycle is one
second.
The number of cycles in a given period of time is called the
frequency.
Example :If the ball swing through three complete cycles in one
second, then the frequency is 3 CPS (cycle per second).
Frequency and Wavelength
If you strike a drum, it has a frequency that is low, approximately 50 CPS.
The top note on the piano has a higher frequency, approx. 4100 CPS.
The unit of frequency used to denote one cycle per second is Hertz
(abbreviated Hz). One cycle per second (CPS) is equal to one Hertz (Hz); 2
CPS = 2 Hz, etc.
Sound travels in metals well as in air. Sounds is a vibration and has a
range
of frequencies.
Man can only hear vibrations (sound) up to about 20,000 Hz.
However, sound from an ultrasonic testing unit is about
5,000,000 Hz (5 megahertz).
Ultrasonic Vibrations & Displacement Cont’d..
Vibrations above the human hearing range are called ultrasonic
vibrations. The two terms, sound and vibrations, as we will use
them, will mean the same thing.
The best way to define sound is to say that it is a vibration that
transmits energy by a series of small material displacements.
Ultrasonic Sound
Ultrasonic testing is the process of applying ultrasonic sound
to a specimen and determining its soundness, thickness, or some
physical property.
The energy is originated in something called a “Transducer”
which causes material displacement within the specimen.
A transducer is a device that converts energy from one form
to another.
Example :
Electrical energy to mechanical, or mechanical to electrical.
A speaker in a radio converts electrical energy to a back and forth
mechanical movement.
Piezoelectric Effect
Electrical energy is applied through two wires connected
to a crystal, causing the crystal to vibrate.
The terms crystal and transducer are used interchangeably
in this lesson.
Piezoelectric Effect Cont’d…
Electrical energy causes a piezoelectric crystal to expand and
contract, forming mechanical vibrations.
A piezoelectric transducer can also convert Mechanical
energy to Electrical energy. Therefore, a transducer can both
send and receive energy.
Ultrasonic Sound
Energy transmitted by a transducer can be either
pulsed or continuous.
Pulsed ultrasound is defined as short groups of
transmitted vibrations before and after which the
transducer can act as a receiver.
Steel, water and oil will transmit ultrasound very well,
but air presents a problem.
Ultrasonic Sound
Air is poor transmitter of ultrasound because the particle
density is so low that it is difficult to transmit sound energy
from particle to particle. That is why we put oil or grease
between the transducer and the specimen.
Velocity and Elasticity
The particle density of a material helps determine the velocity of
sound. The velocity of sound will change as it moves from one
medium to another as shown below. The elasticity of the material is
also a factor.
Velocity and Elasticity
Visualize that the balls shown above represent the internal structure of
Air, Water and Steel.
The impulse moving through the row of balls can be compared to a
pulse of ultrasonic sound.
Velocity and Elasticity
A practical example of the velocity of sound in different materials is
shown below
It will take longer for the sound to travel through the water than through
the steel. The sound velocity in steel is approximately four times
greater than in water.
Wavelength
A wavelength is considered to be the distance between
two successive displacements.
Wavelength
• A wavelength can also be defined as the distance a wave travels
during one complete cycle.
• The symbol is used to represent a wavelength and is called “Lambda”.
Frequency & Wavelength
The illustration below shows a transducer vibrating at a fixed
frequency (f) and transmitting sound wave into the specimen.
These sound waves move at a fixed velocity (v) through the
specimen.
Frequency & Wavelength
The wavelength can be changed if the frequency of the
transducer vibration changes.
v Velocity
Wavelength
f Frequency
Example : you can shorten the wavelength by
increasing the frequency.
Wavelength is a ratio of a fixed value (velocity) divided by
a variable (frequency).
Wavelength and Sensitivity
In practical situations, the smallest discontinuity you can find with
ultrasonic testing is about ½ lambda (wavelength).
Therefore, to detect smaller defects, you will need transducers that
produce higher frequencies.
Ex. : What would be the smallest discontinuity that you could find in a
steel specimen with a velocity of 6 km/sec, using a transducer with
a frequency of 3 megahertz (MHz)?
6 105 CM / SEC
2 Millimeters
3MHz
If the smallest defect detectable is ½ lambda, then the answer is 1
millimeter or 0.040 inches.
QUIZ
1. Relative to ultrasonic testing, air is considered a good
conductor and for this reason ultrasound will carry long distances
in air.
2. Particle density of a material has a direct relationship to the
velocity of a sound in that material.
3. The symbol used to represent a wave length is called ‘Shepda”.
4. With everything else equal, the wavelength in water would be
shorter than a wavelength in steel.
5. To understand our definition of ultrasonic, a steel ball is
considered to be more elastic than a lead ball.
6. Man can hear sounds up to approximately 5000000 Hz.
7. Vibrations pass through a solid material as a series of particle
displacement.
8. The velocity of sound is slower in steel than in water.
9. The number of cycles in a given period of time is called the
frequency.
10. For the purpose of this lesson, ½ the wavelength is
considered to be the smallest discontinuity that can be detected
with ultrasonic.
• 11. If the longitudinal velocity in aluminum is
6.5 x 105 cm/sec and you are using a 2.5 MHz probe, what is the smallest
discontinuity you can detect (3 pts).
12. The ability of transducer to convert mechanical energy to electrical
and electrical to energy to mechanical is due to the __________ effect.
13. The distance that an ultrasonic pulse travels while a particle makes
one complete cycle is called __________ .
Lesson 2 Answers
1. 8.
2. 9.
3. 10.
4. 11.
5. 12.
6. 13.
7.