Vibration
MENG 384
Chapter 2
Free Vibration
By: Dr. Muhammad AL-Qassab
1
Free Vibration
All systems possessing mass and elasticity are capable of free
vibration, or vibration that takes place in the absence of
external excitation. The interest of such systems is to determine
the natural frequency of vibration. There could be one or more
than one natural frequencies in a system.
The objectives here are to learn to write the equation of motion
and evaluate the natural frequency which is mainly function of
the mass and stiffness of the system.
Practical vibration systems are modeled in most cases to
systems that consist of masses, springs (massless), and viscous
dampers.
2
Mass: A force on a mass produces acceleration. From
Newton’s second law for a constant mass, m, we have
f mx
An overdot indicates differentiation with respect to time.
x is the acceleration (m/s²)
Spring: An applied force on spring (massless) produces displacement. From
Hooke’s law
f kx x is the displacement
Where k is the spring constant or called stiffness (N/m).
Viscous damper: An applied force on a viscous damper
produces velocity and the force is given by
f cx x is the velocity
Where c is called damping coefficient (N/m/s) or (N s/m)
3
Undamped Free Vibration:
The system shown is a
spring-mass system which is
allowed to vibrate in the
vertical direction only. It has
one degree of freedom
(DOF), because its motion is
described by one coordinate
x. x is measured from the
static equilibrium position.
For static equilibrium we have
Applying Newton’s second law of
motion to mass m,
4
The previous equation shows that the result force on m is simply the spring
force due to the displacement x.
Divide the previous equation by m and define the circular frequency
The equation becomes
Compare with harmonic motion
The above equation is homogenous (no forcing), constant coefficient, ordinary
linear differential equation. The solution is given by
Where A and B are the two necessary constants. These
constants are evaluated from the initial conditions
5
Applying the initial conditions
The natural period of oscillation is established from
The natural frequency is
In terms of the static deflection, ∆, the frequency become
6
Example 1
Solution:
The stiffness is
k = 153.3 N/m
The natural frequency is
7
Example 2
Determine the natural frequency of the mass M on the end of a cantilever beam of
negligible mass shown below.
Solution:
8
Example 3
The column of the water tank shown below
9
Solution:
Assuming that the water tank is point mass, the column has a uniform cross section
and the mass of the column is negligible, the system can be modeled as a cantilever
beam with concentrated mass at the free end.
10
as
AO 10 in
11
o
2
Thus,
c. The velocity expression becomes
And hence
The acceleration becomes
12
Example 4:
Determine the natural frequency of the system shown below in Fig. a. Assume the
pulleys to be frictionless and of negligible mass.
Solution:
To determine the natural frequency, we find the equivalent stiffness of the
system and solve it as a single degree of freedom problem. Since the pulleys
are frictionless and massless, the tension in the rope is constant and is equal
to the weight W of the mass m. From the static equilibrium of the pulleys
and the mass (see Fig. b), it can be seen that the upward force acting on
pulley 1 is 2W and the downward force acting on pulley 2 is 2W. The center
of pulley 1 (point A) moves up by a distance 2W/k1 and the center of pulley
2 (point B) moves down by 2W/k2. Thus the total movement of the mass m
(point O) is
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as the rope on either side of the pulley is free to move the mass downward. If
keq denotes the equivalent spring constant of the system,
By displacing mass m from the static equilibrium position by x, the equation of motion
of the mass can be written as
and hence the natural frequency is given by
14
15
Rotational Vibration
If a rigid body oscillates about a specific reference axis, the resulting motion is called
torsional vibration. In this case, the displacement of the body is measured in terms of
an angular coordinate. In a torsional vibration the restoring moment may be due to
the torsion of an elastic member or the unbalanced moment of a force or couple.
Consider the disc shown, which is
mounted at one end of a solid
circular shaft, the other end of
which is fixed.
• Jo is the polar mass moment of
inertia
• θ is the angular rotation of the disc.
It is also represent the angle of twist
of the shaft (rad).
16
From the theory of torsion of circular shafts, we have
GI O
Mt
l
Where
• is the torque that produces the twist angle θ (N. m).
• G is the shear modulus (N/m²).
• l is the length of the shaft (m).
• d is the diameter of the shaft (m).
• is the polar moment of inertia given by
(m 4 )
If the disc is displaced by θ from its equilibrium position, the
shaft provide a restoring torque of magnitude Mt . Thus the shaft
acts a torsional spring with a torsional spring constant
17
Equation of Motion:
The equation of the angular motion of the disc about its axis can be derived by using
Newton's second law. By considering the free-body diagram of the disc (Fig. b), we can
derive the equation of motion by applying Newton's second law of motion:
which can be seen to be identical to that of translational vibration if we replaced
the following:
Jo m
x
kt k
Thus the natural circular frequency of the torsional system is
and the period and frequency of vibration in cycles per second are
18
Example 5:
An automobile wheel and tire are suspended by a steel rod 0.50 cm in diameter and 2 m
long, as shown in Figure below. When the wheel is given an angular displacement and
released, it makes 10 oscillations in 30.2 s. Determine the polar moment of inertia of the
wheel and tire
Solution:
The rotational equation of motion corresponding to
Newton's equation is
The natural frequency of oscillation is equal to
Thus, 19
Example 6:
The figure below shows a uniform bar pivoted about point O with springs of equal
stiffness k at each end. The bar is horizontal in the equilibrium position with spring
forces P1 and P2. Determine the equation of motion and its natural frequency.
Solution:
Static Equilibrium:
Sum of moments about point O is zero.
Thus,
Under rotation θ, the spring force on the left is decreased and that on the right is
increased. With Jo as the moment of inertia of the bar about O, the moment equation
about O is
Considering only the moment of the forces due to displacement θ, we have
by inspection, the natural frequency of
oscillation is
20
Energy Method
In a conservative system, the total energy is constant, and the differential equation of
motion can also be established by the principle of conservation of energy. For the free
vibration of an undamped system, the energy is partly kinetic and partly potential. The
kinetic energy T is stored in the mass by virtue of its velocity, whereas the potential
energy U is stored in the form of strain energy in elastic deformation or by a spring or
work done in a force field such as gravity. The total energy being constant, its rate of
change is zero, as illustrated by the following equations
The kinetic and potential energies are given by
1
T mx 2
2
1
U kx 2
2
21
If our interest is only in the natural frequency of the system, it can be determined by
the following considerations. From the principle of conservation of energy, we can
write
where the subscripts 1 and 2 represent two instances of time. Let at the instant 1 be the
time when the mass is passing through its static equilibrium position and choose
as reference for the potential energy. Let 2 be the time corresponding to the maximum
displacement of the mass. At this position, the velocity of the mass is zero, and hence
We then have
The preceding equation leads directly to the natural frequency.
22
Example 7:
Determine the natural frequency of the system shown below.
Solution:
For static equilibrium (θ = 0), we have
M O 0
Fs r2 mgr1 0
The work done by Fs and mg under rotation θ are given by:
WFs Fs r2
Wmg mgr1
The potential energy is:
1
U max k r2 mgr1 Fs r2
2
2 max
1 2 2
kr2 max
2 23
The kinetic energy is given by:
The principle of conservation of energy, we have
Hence,
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Example 7:
A cylinder of weight w and radius r rolls without slipping on a cylindrical surface of
radius R, as shown below. Determine its differential equation of motion for small
oscillations about the lowest point. For no slipping, we have rφ = Rθ.
Solution:
In determining the kinetic energy of the cylinder, it must
be noted that both translation and rotation take place. The
translational velocity of the center of the cylinder is
Vc ( R r )
whereas the rotational velocity is
R
1 because φ = (R/r) θ for no slipping.
r
The kinetic energy can now be written as
1 1 2
T mVc2 J c
2 2
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mr 2 w r 2
Where Jc
2 g 2
potential energy referred to its lowest position is
Using the following equation,
d
T U 0
dt
We get,
For small angle θ, sin θ~ θ, we obtain the familiar equation for harmonic motion,
26
RAYLEIGH METHOD: EFFECTIVE MASS
The energy method can be used for multimass systems or for distributed mass
systems, provided the motion of every point in the system is known.
In systems in which masses (discrete) are joined by rigid links, levers, or gears,
the motion of the various masses can be expressed in terms of the motion x of
some specific point and the system is simply one of a single DOF, because only
one coordinate is necessary. The kinetic energy can then be written as
where
is the effective mass or an equivalent lumped mass at the specified point. If the
meff
stiffness at that point is also known, the natural frequency can be calculated from
the simple equation
Example 8:
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In distributed mass systems such as springs and beams, a knowledge of the distribution
of the vibration amplitude becomes necessary before the kinetic energy can be
calculated. Rayleigh showed that with a reasonable assumption for the shape of the
vibration amplitude, it is possible to take into account previously ignored masses and
arrive at a better estimate for the fundamental frequency. The following examples
illustrate the use of both of these methods.
Example 9:
Determine the effect of the mass of the spring on the natural frequency of the system
shown below.
Solution:
With x equal to the velocity of the lumped mass m, we
will assume the velocity of a spring element located a
distance y from the fixed end to vary linearly with y as
follows:
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The kinetic energy of the spring can be integrated to
Example 10:
A simply supported beam of total mass mb , has a concentrated mass M at midspan.
Determine the effective mass of the system at midspan and find its fundamental
frequency.
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30
Viscously Damped Free Vibration
Viscous damping force is given by
Where c is a constant called the damping coefficient. Consider the figure given below.
From the free body diagram we have
Which is the equation of motion of damped
vibration. If F(t) = 0, the above equation
becomes homogenous differential equation of
the free damped vibration given as follows:
The traditional approach to assume a solution of the form
Where s is constant.
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Upon substituting into the differential equation we obtain
Which is satisfied for all values of t when
The above equation is known as the characteristic equation, and has two roots:
The general solution is given by
Where A and B are constant to be evaluated from the initial conditions
32
The solution becomes
The first term in the equation above, is simply a decaying function of time.
The behavior of the terms in the parentheses, however, depends on whether the
numerical 2
value within the radical is positive, zero, or negative.
c k
If 2m m 0 (positive) the exponents in the previous equation are real numbers and
no oscillations are possible. We refer to this case as overdamped.
2
If c k
0 (negative) , the exponent becomes an imaginary number,
2m m
The terms of previous equation within the parentheses are oscillatory.
We refer to this case as underdamped.
2
c k
If 0 (Zero), it is the limiting case between the oscillatory and
2m m
nonoscillatory motion. The damping corresponding to this case is
called critical damping,
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Any damping can be expressed in terms of the critical damping by a nondimensional
parameter, ξ, called damping ratio:
and we can express in terms of ξ as follows:
The two roots become,
The three cases of damping discussed here now depend on whether ξ is greater than,
less than or equal to unity. Furthermore, the differential equation of motion can now be
expressed in terms of ξ and
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Complex domain of the two roots,
If ξ = 0, we have
Imaginary roots (undamped case)
If we have,
The roots are complex conjugate
If ξ = 1, we have
If ξ is increased beyond unity, the two roots get
separated along the horizontal axis and remain real.
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Consider the three cases motion of viscously damped motion:
Oscillatory Motion:
The general solution becomes
This equation can also be written in either of the following two forms
where the arbitrary constants are determined from the initial conditions.
the solution reduces to
The equation indicates that the frequency of damped oscillation is equal to
36
Damped oscillation, ξ < 1.0
37
Nonoscillatory Motion.
As ξ exceeds unity, the two roots remain on the real axis on the complex domain
and separate, one increasing and the other decreasing. The general solution
becomes
where
The function is exponentially decreasing
function and is referred to as a aperiodic.
38
Critically Damped Motion:
For ξ = 1, we obtain a double root and the solution combine to a
single term, which is lacking in the number of constants required to satisfy the two
initial conditions. The correct general solution becomes:
The figure below shows three types of response with initial displacement x(0).
39
Example 11
An 8 kg body is moved 0.2 m to the right of the equilibrium position and
released from rest at time t = 0. The spring stiffness k is 32 N/m. Determine
the displacement of the body at t = 2 s for c = 20 Ns/m.
40
Logarithmic Decrement
A convenient way to determine the amount of damping present in a system is to
measure the rate of decay of free vibration. The larger the damping, the greater will
be the rate of decay.
For underdamped vibration, the general solution is given by
Define a term called logarithmic decrement which is
the natural logarithm of the ratio of any two successive
amplitudes. Thus,
and because the values of the sines are equal when the time is increased by the
damped period, the preceding equation reduces to
41
Using,
we have
which is an exact equation.
When ξ is small,
and an approximate equation
is obtained.
42
Example 12
Thus,
43
Example 13
xo x1 x2 xn 1
e
x1 x2 x3 xn
44
To determine the number of cycles elapsed for a 50 percent reduction in amplitude, we
obtain the following relationship from the preceding equation:
1 0.693
2 ln 2
n n
0.693
n 0.110
2
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Coulomb Damping
Coulomb damping results from sliding of two dry surfaces. The damping force is
given by
Fd N
where μ is the coefficient of friction and N is the normal force. The force is
constant and is assumed to be independent of velocity. Because the sign of the
damping force is always opposite to that of the velocity, the differential equation
of motion for each sign is valid only for half cycle intervals.
Using the principle of work and energy as follows
T1 U1 2 T2
Choosing points 1 and 2 as the extreme
positions of the first half cycle, we have
or
where is the amplitude after the half cycle.
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For the next half cycle, we have
1
k X 21 X 22 Fd X 1 X 2 0
2
or
1
k X 1 X 2 Fd
2
Adding the two equations, we get
Observations:
1. It can be shown that the frequency of oscillation is n k m (undamped
2. The amplitude decay linearly with time natural frequency)
3. The amplitude of any two consecutive cycles is given by
4 Fd
X m 1 X m
k
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