University of Computer Studies (Taungoo)
Chapter 3 : Data Communications
Daw Cherry Kyaw Win
Associate Professor
Faculty of Computer Systems and Technologies
Computer Network I
FCST
Transmission Terminology
Data transmission occurs between transmitter and receiver over some transmission medium
Communication is in the
form of electromagnetic
waves
Unguided media
Guided media (wireless)
Twisted pair, coaxial air, vacuum, and
cable, optical fiber seawater
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Transmission Terminology (Cont’d)
Direct link (guided & unguided)
No intermediate devices other than amplifiers
or repeaters used to increase signal strength
Point-to-point (guided)
Direct link between two devices
Only 2 devices sharing medium
Multi-point
More than two devices share the same
medium
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Transmission Terminology (Cont’d)
Simplex
Signals are transmitted in only one direction
One station is transmitter and the other is
television
receiver.
Half duplex
Both stations may transmit, but only one at a
time. Walkie Talkie
Full duplex
Both stations may transmit simultaneously
The medium is carrying signals in both directions
telephone 4
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Analog and Digital Signals
Analog Signal
varies in a smooth or continuous
over the time
represent speech
Digital Signal (discrete)
maintains a constant level for
some period of time and then
changes to another constant level
represent binary 1s and 0s.
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Periodic Signals
The same signal pattern repeats over the time
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Sine Wave
Is the fundamental periodic signal
Can be represented by three parameters
Peak amplitude (A)
Maximum value or strength of the signal over time
measured in volts A
Amplitude
Frequency (f)
(volts)
Rate at which the signal repeats time
Hertz (Hz) or cycles per second 0
Period (T) is the amount of time for one repetition
T = 1/f -A
Period = T= 1/f
Phase ()
Relative position in time within a single period of
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Example of Sine Waves
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Wavelength ()
The wavelength of a signal is the distance occupied by a
single cycle
The distance between two points of corresponding phase of
two consecutive cycles λ
s(t)
Assuming signal velocity v, then the wavelength is related
to the period as = vT
Or equivalently
v = f
Especially when v = c λ λ
c = 3 108 m/s (speed of light in free space)
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Frequency Domain Concepts
Signals are made up of many frequencies.
fundamental frequency, which is the lowest frequency of the
periodic waveform
Harmonic Frequency: Integer multiples of fundamental
frequency
Period of the total signal is equal to the period of the
fundamental frequency.
Fourier analysis can show that any signal is made up of
components at various frequencies, in which each component
is a sinusoid. 10
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Frequency Domain Concepts (Cont’d)
Addition of Frequency Components
Two sine waves of frequencies: f and 3f
Fundamental frequency: f
Harmonic frequency: 3f
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Frequency Domain Concepts (Cont’d)
Frequency-Domain Representations
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Spectrum and Bandwidth
Spectrum
Range of frequencies contained in signal
Absolute bandwidth
dc component
Width of spectrum
Effective bandwidth (or just bandwidth)
Narrow band of frequencies containing
most energy
Dc component
Component of zero frequency
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Data Rate and Bandwidth
This limits the
Any
data rate that
transmission
can be carried
system has a
on the
limited band
transmission
of frequencies Square waves
medium
have infinite
components
and hence an
infinite
bandwidth
Limiting
Most energy
bandwidth
in first few
creates
components
distortions
There is a direct relationship between 14
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data rate and bandwidth 37
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Analog and Digital Data Transmission
Data
Entities that convey information
Signals
Electric or electromagnetic
representations of data
Signaling
Physical propagation of the signal
along a suitable medium
Transmission
Communication of data by the
propagation and processing of
signals 15
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Digital Data, Digital signal
Examples:
Text, character input at a PC
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FCST Advantages and Disadvantages of Digital Signals
- Generally cheaper
- Less susceptible to noise interference
- Suffer more from attenuation
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Audio Signal, Analog signal
Frequency range 20Hz-20kHz (speech
100Hz-7kHz)
Easily converted into electromagnetic
signals
Varying volume converted to varying
voltage
Can limit frequency range for voice
channel to 300-3400Hz
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Video Signals
To produce a video signal a TV camera is used
USA standard is 483 lines per frame, at a rate of 30 complete
frames per second
Actual standard is 525 lines but about 42 are lost during vertical
retrace
Horizontal scanning frequency is 525 lines x 30 scans = 15750
lines per second
Max frequency if line alternates between black and white as
rapidly as possible
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Analog and Digital Transmission
Analog Signaling of Analog and Digital Data
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Analog and Digital Transmission
Digital Signaling of Analog and Digital Data
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Table 3.1 Analog and Digital Transmission
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Analog and Digital Transmission
Quiz
1. Digital data can be represented by analog signals by the use of _____.
Ans. modem
2. Analog data can be represented by digital signals by the use of _____.
Ans. codec
3. _____ can recover analog/digital data from the analog signal.
Ans. Amplifier
4. _____ can recover digital data from the digital signal and it can also recover analog
signal carrying digital data. 23
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Ans. Repeater
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Move to Digital
Digital technology
LSI and VLSI technology has caused a continuing drop in the cost and size of digital circuitry
Data integrity
The use of repeaters has made it possible to transmit data longer distances over lower quality
lines while maintaining the integrity of the data
Capacity utilization
It has become economical to build transmission links of very high bandwidth, including
satellite channels and optical fiber, and a high degree of multiplexing is needed to utilize such
capacity effectively
Security and privacy
Encryption techniques can be readily applied to digital data and to analog data that have been
digitized
Integration
Economies of scale and convenience can be achieved by integrating voice, video, and digital 24
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data
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Asynchronous and Synchronous Transmission
Asynchronous
used to avoid the timing problem by
not sending long, uninterrupted
streams of bits
Data are transmitted one character at a
time, where each character is 5 to 8
bits in length including start and stop
codes
Timing or synchronization must only
be maintained within each character
The receiver has the opportunity to
resynchronize at the beginning of
each new character 25
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Asynchronous and Synchronous Transmission
Synchronous
A block of bits is transmitted in a steady
stream without start and stop codes
Block may be many bits in length
To prevent timing drift between transmitter
and receiver, their clocks must somehow be
synchronized:
Provide a separate clock line between
transmitter and receiver (OR) Synchronous frame format
Embed the clocking information in the
data signal
Frame
Data plus preamble, postamble, and 26
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control information
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Transmission Impairments
Signal received may differ from signal transmitted causing:
Analog - degradation of signal quality
Digital - bit errors
Most significant impairments are
Attenuation and attenuation distortion
Delay distortion
Noise
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Attenuation
Signal strength falls off with
distance over any transmission Strength can be
increased using
amplifiers or
medium repeaters
Varies with frequency
Received signal
strength must be:
Equalize attenuation
• Strong enough to across the band of
be detected frequencies used by
• Sufficiently higher using loading coils or
than noise to be amplifiers
received without
error
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Attenuation (Cont’d)
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Delay Distortion
Occurs in guided media (in transmission cables such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, and optical
fiber)
Does not occur when signals are transmitted through the air by means of antennas
Occurs because propagation velocity of a signal through a guided medium varies with
frequency
Various frequency components arrive at different times resulting in phase shifts between the
frequencies
Particularly critical for digital data since parts of one bit spill over into others causing
intersymbol interference
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Noise
Unwanted signals inserted between transmitter and receiver
Four categories of noise:
1. Thermal Noise
Due to thermal agitation of electrons
Uniformly distributed across bandwidths
Referred to as white noise
2. Intermodulation Noise
Produced by nonlinearities in the transmitter, receiver, and/or intervening
transmission medium
Effect is to produce signals at a frequency that is the sum or difference of the
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Noise (Cont’d)
3. Crosstalk
• A signal from one line is picked up by another
• Occurs by electrical coupling between nearby twisted pairs
• Occurs when microwave antennas pick up unwanted signals
4. Impulse Noise
Caused by external electromagnetic interferences
Noncontinuous, consisting of irregular pulses or spikes of short duration and
high amplitude
Minor annoyance for analog signals but a major source of error in digital data
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Channel Capacity
Maximum rate at which data can be transmitted over a given communications channel under given conditions
Bandwidth
The bandwidth
Error rate
of the
The rate at
transmitted
Data rate which errors
signal as Noise
occur, where an The main
The rate, in bits constrained by The average
error is the
The greater the
constraint on
per second (bps) the transmitter level of noise
reception of a 1
bandwidth of a
achieving
at which data and the nature over the facility, the
when a 0 was efficiency is
can be of the communications greater the cost
transmitted or noise
communicated transmission path
the reception of
medium,
a 0 when a 1
expressed in
was transmitted
cycles per
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Nyquist Bandwidth
In the case of a channel that is noise free:
The limitation of data rate is simply the bandwidth of the signal
For binary signals, the data rate that can be supported by B Hz is 2B bps
With multilevel signaling, the Nyquist formula becomes:
Maximum Signal rate C = 2B log2M, where M = number of discrete signal levels
Data rate can be increased by increasing the number of different signal elements
This increases burden on receiver
Noise and other impairments limit the practical value of M
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Shannon Capacity Formula
Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR)
Relationship among data rate, noise and error rate:
Faster data rate shortens each bit so bursts of noise corrupts more bits
Given noise level, higher rates mean higher errors
Shannon developed signal to noise ratio SNR =
SNR(db) = 10 log10 SNR
Capacity C = B log2(1+SNR)
Theoretical maximum capacity
Get much lower rates in practice
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Thank You
For your attention
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