Inspection

Series
Hot Dip Galvanizing
This course is intended to train individuals on the proper
inspection techniques and requirements for hot-dip galvanized
steel products. There are four sections in this course:

1. Hot-Dip Galvanizing Process

2. Galvanizing Standards
3. Types of Inspection
4. Repair
Upon completion of this course, you should be able to recognize
specification requirements and perform all inspection steps to
ensure conformance with the requirements.
 Galvanizing Process
Hot-dip galvanizing is the process of immersing iron or steel in a bath of molten zinc to produce a corrosion resistant, multi-
layered coating of zinc-iron alloy and zinc metal. While the steel is immersed in the zinc, a metallurgical reaction occurs between
the iron in the steel and the molten zinc. This reaction is a diffusion process, so the coating forms perpendicular to all surfaces
creating a uniform thickness throughout the part.

The hot-dip galvanizing process (Figure 1) has been used since 1742, providing long-lasting, maintenance-free corrosion
protection at a reasonable cost for decades. Although hot-dip galvanizing has been utilized to protect steel for generations, the
galvanizing process continues to evolve with new technologies and creative chemistries. The three main steps in the hot-dip
galvanizing process are surface preparation, galvanizing, and post-treatment, each of which will be discussed in detail. The
process is inherently simple, which is a distinct advantage over other corrosion protection methods.
Figure 2 shows a series of steel structures with visible evidence of corrosion. Rust
and corrosion are expensive for owners and taxpayers. Deteriorating buildings,
roads, bridges, etc. are costly to repair, and without sufficient corrosion protection,
maintenance is done often, or in the worst cases, the structure must be rebuilt.
With the push toward sustainable development, specifying structures with
longevity that require little maintenance over time provide both environmental and
economic benefits.
 Surface Preparation
The purpose of surface preparation in the hot-dip galvanizing process is
to obtain the cleanest possible steel surface by removing all of the
oxides and other contaminating residues. Thorough surface preparation
is paramount as zinc will not react with unclean steel. In order to move
the steel parts through the cleaning steps and galvanizing bath, the
articles are hung using chains, wires, or specially designed dipping racks
(Figure 3).

Cleaning steel to prepare for the hot-dip galvanized coating consists of

three steps:
 Degreasing
First the steel is immersed in a degreasing bath such as an alkaline
caustic solution to remove organic contaminants such as dirt, oil, and
grease from the surface of the steel. After degreasing the steel is rinsed
with water.

Pickling
Next the steel is pickled in a dilute solution of either
hydrochloric or sulfuric acid (Figure 4), which removes oxides
and mill scale. Once all oxidation has been removed from the
steel, it is again rinsed with water and sent to the final step of
the surface preparation.
 Fluxing
Finally, the steel is dipped in the flux. The purpose of the flux is to clean the steel of
all oxidation developed since the pickling of the steel and to create a protective
coating to prevent any oxidation before entering the galvanizing kettle. One type of
flux is contained in a separate tank, is slightly acidic, and contains a combination of
zinc chloride and ammonium chloride. Another type of flux, top flux, floats on top
of the liquid zinc in the galvanizing kettle, but serves the same purpose.

After degreasing, pickling, and fluxing, the surface of the steel is a near white
metal, clean and completely free of any oxides or other contaminants that might
inhibit the reaction of the iron and molten zinc in the galvanizing kettle.
 Galvanizing
Once the steel has been completely cleaned, it is ready
for immersion in the zinc bath. The galvanizing kettle
contains zinc specified to ASTM B6, a document that
specifies any one of three grades of zinc that are each at
least 98% pure. Sometimes other metals may be added
to the kettle to promote certain desirable properties in
the galvanized coating.

The galvanizing kettle (Figure 5), is heated to a

temperature ranging from 820-860 F (438-460 C), at
which point the zinc is in a liquid state. The steel
products are lowered into the galvanizing kettle at an
angle, and stay in the bath until the steel heats to the
bath temperature. Once the diffusion reaction of iron
and zinc is complete, the steel product is withdrawn
from the zinc kettle. The entire dip usually lasts less than
ten minutes, depending upon the thickness of the steel.
The below coating structure, as seen in Figure 6, is typical for steels of recommended chemistry
for galvanizing where the thickness of the coating is limited by the interdiffusion of iron and zinc.

Post-Treatment
When the steel is removed from the galvanizing kettle, it may
receive a post-treatment to enhance the galvanized coating. One
of the most commonly used treatments is quenching. The
quench tank contains mostly water but may also have chemicals
added to create a passivation layer that protects the galvanized
steel during storage and transportation. Other finishing steps
include removal of zinc drips or spikes, by grinding them off.
 Time to First Maintenance
The Time to First Maintenance (Figure 7) for hot-dip galvanized coatings in atmospheric exposure is linear to the zinc
coating thickness. Time to First Maintenance is defined as the time to 5% rusting of the substrate steel. The
minimum average coating thickness requirements outlined in ASTM A123 Table 1 can be used to predict the
minimum Time to First Maintenance of galvanized products by material category (structural shapes, strip, plate,
pipe, wire, etc). For example, structural shapes that are ¼-thick or greater (other than tubing and plate) are required
to have at least 3.9 mils of zinc according to ASTM A123 Table 1. As the TFM Chart shows, this would equate to 72-
73 years of life before maintenance in an industrial environment.
 Other Corrosion Protection Systems
There are many other types of corrosion protection systems, such as coating steel with oil, grease, tar, asphalt, polymer coatings
or paints, or corrosion resistant materials such as stainless and weathering steel, sacrificial anodes, plating systems and
impressed current systems. These are some of the most commonly used corrosion protection materials and systems and are
sometimes used in conjunction with hot-dip galvanized steel. Most of these materials rely on barrier protection, while some of
them rely on cathodic properties to resist steel corrosion. The most effective system that provides both barrier and cathodic
protection is hot-dip galvanizing.

In addition to the systems and materials listed above, there are a wide variety of other zinc coatings used for corrosion
protection. Many people use galvanizing to describe all of these coatings, but each has its own unique characteristics and
performance. These coatings have several applications based on their properties and respective thicknesses. The corrosion
protection offered by a zinc coating is directly linear to the coating thickness. The most commonly used coatings are hot-dip
galvanized, metallized, zinc-rich paint, continuous galvanized sheet, and electroplated. The relative thickness for each of these
zinc coatings can be seen in the photomicrograph (Figure 8). Below is a brief explanation of each type of zinc coating
 Metallizing
Metallizing is the general name for the
technique of spraying a metal coating on the
surface of non-metallic or metallic objects. This
process is accomplished by feeding zinc in
either wire or powder form into a heated gun,
where it is melted and sprayed onto the surface
to be coated using combustion gases and/or
auxiliary compressed air to provide the
necessary velocity. The limitations of this
process include a difficulty in reaching recesses,
cavities, and hollow spaces as well as achieving
a uniform coating thickness and the higher
cost.
 Zinc-Rich Paint

Zinc-rich paint is applied to a clean, dry steel surface by

either a brush or spray and contains an organic or inorganic
binder. There are a number of zinc-rich paints, as they can
contain varying levels of zinc in dry film and binding
materials. These coatings will be discussed in more detail
later in this course.
 Continuous Galvanizing
The continuous galvanizing process is a hot-dip process
where steel sheet, strip, or wire is cleaned, pickled, and
fluxed on a processing line approximately 500 feet (154
m) in length, and running at speeds between 100 to 600
feet per minute (30 to 185 m per minute). In this
process, the galvanizing kettle contains a small amount
of aluminum, which suppresses the formation of the
zinc-iron alloys, resulting in a coating that is mostly pure
zinc. A post-galvanizing, in-line heat treatment process
known as galvannealing can also be used to produce a
fully alloyed coating. Galvannealing is usually ordered
by those wanting to paint over the zinc surface because
the presence of alloy layers on the steel surface
promotes paint adhesion. A photo of a continuous
galvanizing plant is seen in Figure 9 and the common
plant setup is shown in Figure 10.
 Electroplating

The electroplating process, or zinc-plated coating, has a dull gray color, a matte
finish, and a thin coating that ranges up to one mil (25 µm) thick. This very thin
coating restricts the use of zinc-plated products to indoor exposures. The
specification ASTM B633 lists the classes of zinc-plated steel coatings as Fe/Zn 5,
Fe/Zn 8, Fe/Zn 12, and Fe/Zn 25, where Fe represents iron and Zn represents zinc,
while the number indicates the coating thickness in microns. The main uses for this
type of coating include screws, light switch plates, and other small products or
fasteners.
 Galvanizing Plant Safety
Safety at the Galvanizing Plant for Visiting Inspectors
Occasionally, visitors are asked to perform inspections or oversight at a hot-dip galvanizing facility. Each hot-dip galvanizing facility
is unique and presents its own potential safety hazards. These hazards may require use of personal protective equipment (PPE)
and the type of PPE used depends on the work environment. PPE commonly used at a galvanizing facility include a hard hat,
safety glasses, hearing protection, gloves, coveralls, high-visibility vests, and safety footwear. For additional precaution, it is not
uncommon for the galvanizer to restrict access or require you be accompanied in certain areas of the facility.

Some universal guidance when working in a hot-dip galvanizing plant includes but is not limited to:

1. Read all signs for chemical and physical dangers

2. Watch where you step and watch for trip hazards
3. Minimize interactions with forklifts. Listen for forklifts; Make eye contact with forklift operators and walk in
predicable, designated footpaths
4. Do not walk under suspended loads
5. Do not stand near the galvanizing kettle during immersion of the steel
6. Do not touch galvanized steel without confirmation the parts have been cooled – parts are hot even though
they may not appear to be hot
7. Avoid heat stress by avoiding the kettle area -- high temperatures can be felt around the galvanizing kettle no
matter what time of year
8. Avoid working at height or on a truck
 Galvanizing Standards

There are certain specifications that have been developed for hot-dip
galvanizing in order to produce a high-quality coating. There are three
main standards that govern hot-dip galvanized steel, and a handful of
supporting specifications that design engineers and fabricators should
become familiar with to promote a high-quality coating and ensure their
steel design is suitable for hot-dip galvanizing.
 ASTM Standards
The three governing ASTM specifications for hot-dip galvanizing are:

ASTM A123/A123M: Standard Specification for Zinc (Hot-Dip Galvanized) Coatings on Iron and Steel
Products
Single pieces of steel or fabrications with different types of steel products

ASTM A153/A153M: Standard Specification for Zinc Coating (Hot-Dip) on Iron and Hardware

Fasteners and small products that are centrifuged after galvanizing to remove
excess zinc

ASTM A767/A767M: Standard Specification for Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) Steel Bars for Concrete
Reinforcement

Reinforcing steel or rebar

 Other Galvanizing Standards
There are also a few international governing standards to be aware of:

1. CSA G164: Hot-Dip Galvanizing of Irregularly Shaped Article (Note: The scope of
this standard was revised in 2018 to include products intended or primarily for use
in electrical and communication systems only.)

2. ISO 1461: Hot-Dip Galvanized Coatings on Fabricated Iron and Steel Assemblies
Specifications and Test Methods

3. AASHTO M111 (ASTM A123): Zinc (Hot-Dip Galvanized) Coatings on Iron and Steel
Products
AASHTO M232 (ASTM A153): Zinc Coating (Hot-Dip) on Iron and Steel Hardware

In addition to the governing standards, there are a handful of pre- and post-galvanizing
supporting specifications that a specifier/designer should also be familiar with:
 Pre-Galvanizing
ASTM A143/A143M: Standard Practice for Safeguarding Against Embrittlement of
Hot-Dip Galvanized Structural Steel Products and Procedure for Detecting
Embrittlement

ASTM A384/A384M: Standard Practice for Safeguarding Against Warpage and

Distortion During Hot-Dip Galvanizing of Steel Assemblies

ASTM A385/A385M: Standard Practice for Providing High-Quality Zinc Coatings

(Hot-Dip)

ASTM B6: Standard Specification for Zinc

 Post-Galvanizing
ASTM A780: Practice for Repair of Damaged and Uncoated Areas of Hot-Dip
Galvanized Coatings

ASTM D6386: Practice for Preparation of Zinc (Hot-Dip Galvanized) Coated Iron and
Steel Product and Hardware Surfaces for Paint

ASTM D7803: Practice for Preparation of Zinc (Hot-Dip Galvanized) Coated Iron and
Steel Product and Hardware Surfaces for Powder Coating

ASTM E376: Standard Practice for Measuring Coating Thickness by Magnetic-Field

or Eddy-Current (Electromagnetic) Examination Methods

Let's examine a few of these specifications in more detail.

ASTM A123 for Structural Steel Products
The specification ASTM A123/A123M
covers individual steel pieces as well as
assemblies of various classes of material.
The six material categories covered in
ASTM A123/A123M include structural
shapes, strip and bar, plate, pipe and
tubing, wire, and reinforcing bar. A
fabrication can have more than one
material category such as a frame
assembly. Any combination of these
products can be assembled into a single
fabrication and then hot-dip galvanized
(Figure 11).
It is the responsibility of the designer and fabricator to ensure the product has been properly
designed and built before hot-dip galvanizing. The galvanizer should be informed of any
necessary special instructions or requests, preferably in writing on the purchase order, before the
materials are shipped to the galvanizing plant.

It is the responsibility of the galvanizer to ensure compliance with the specifications, as long as
the product has been designed and fabricated in accordance with the supporting specifications.
However, if the galvanizer has to perform additional work in order to prepare the product for
hot-dip galvanizing, such as drilling holes to facilitate drainage or venting, it should be approved
by the customer. Once the material has been hot-dip galvanized, it can be fully inspected at the
galvanizing plant prior to shipment.

Any materials rejected by an inspector for any reason except embrittlement may be stripped,
regalvanized, and resubmitted for inspection. The ASTM specifications A143/A143M, ASTM
A384/A384M, and ASTM A385 provide guidelines for preparing products for hot-dip galvanizing.
The requirements listed in ASTM A123/A123M include coating thickness, finish, appearance, and
adherence. These are each defined below and discussed in more detail later in this course.
 ASTM A123/A123M Requirements
Coating Thickness / Weight dependent upon material category and steel
thickness

Finish continuous, smooth, uniform

Appearance free from uncoated areas, blisters, flux deposits and gross dross
inclusions as well as having no heavy zinc deposits that interfere with
intended use

Adherence the entire coating should have a strong adherence throughout

the service life of galvanized steel
The hot-dip galvanized coating is intended for products fabricated into their
final shape that will be exposed to corrosive environmental conditions. Once
a product has been hot-dip galvanized, any further fabrication, which rarely
occurs, may have negative effects on the corrosion protection of the coating.
The coating grade is defined as the required thickness of the coating and is
given in microns. All coating thickness requirements in specification ASTM
A123/A123M, (Tables 1 and 2), are minimums; there are no maximum coating
thickness requirements in the specification.

In atmospheric environments, the time to first maintenance of hot-dip

galvanized steel is directly proportional to the thickness of the hot-dip
galvanized coating. With all other variables held constant, the thicker the zinc
coating, the longer the life of the coating. The aim of the finish and
appearance requirements is to ensure no coatings have problem areas that
are deficient of zinc or have surface defects that would interfere with the
intended use of the product. In addition, the coating should have a strong
adherence throughout the service of the hot-dip galvanized steel.
 ASTM A153 for Hardware
The specification ASTM A153/A153M applies to
hardware products such as castings, fasteners,
rolled, pressed, and forged products, and
miscellaneous threaded objects that will be
centrifuged, spun, or otherwise handled to
remove excess zinc (Figure 12).

The requirements for ASTM A153/A153M are

very similar to those stated earlier for ASTM
A123/A123M, except for the addition of
threaded products and embrittlement
requirements.
 ASTM A153/A153M Requirements
Coating Thickness/Weight depends on the material category and steel thickness, values are
listed in Table 3

Threaded Products areas with threads are not subject to the coating thickness requirement

Finish continuous, smooth, uniform

Embrittlement high tensile strength fasteners (>150ksi) and castings can be subject to
embrittlement

Appearance free from uncoated areas, blisters, flux deposits and gross dross inclusions as well as
having no heavy zinc deposits that interfere with intended use

Adherence the entire coating should have a strong adherence throughout the service life of hot-
dip galvanized steel
There are fabrication steps that may impair the corrosion protection of the hot-dip galvanized
coating; however, flaking or damage to the coating because of this is not case for rejection. In all
cases, good steel selection results in the formation of a higher quality coating and finish on the
product. The corrosion protection coating for threaded products is applied after the product has
been fabricated and further fabrication may compromise the corrosion protection system. The
one exception to this rule is the internal threads of a nut that should be over-tapped after the
coating is applied in order to accommodate the coating thickness change on the thread of the
bolts. In this case, the zinc on the bolt threads provides the corrosion protection to the uncoated
threads in the nut.

There are certain fabrication techniques that can induce stresses into the steel and lead to brittle
failure. There are precautions given in ASTM A143/A143M that should be taken in order to
prevent embrittlement. In addition, selecting steels with appropriate chemistries can help
prevent embrittlement of malleable castings. A reproduction and summary of the table given in
ASTM A153/A153M, (Table 3), gives the different classes of products and the minimum coating
thickness required by the specification.
TABLE 3
 ASTM A767 for Reinforcing Steel
The specification ASTM A767/A767M is
applicable exclusively to the hot-dip
galvanizing of reinforcing steel, otherwise
known as rebar (Figure 13), and is
applicable to all types of rebar, both
smooth and deformed. However, wire is
not included.

The requirements in ASTM A767/A767M

are also intended to produce a high
quality zinc coating for corrosion
protection.
 ASTM A767/A767M Requirements
Identity the galvanizer is responsible for consistent material tracking if necessary

Coating Thickness/Weight material category and steel thickness

Chromating to prevent reaction between cement and recently galvanized material

Finish continuous, smooth, and uniform

Appearance free from uncoated areas, blisters, flux deposits and gross dross inclusions as well as having no heavy zinc deposits
that interfere with intended use

Adherence should be tightly adherent throughout intended use of the product

Bend Diameters flaking and cracking due to fabrication after the hot-dip galvanizing process are not rejectable

Once rebar is delivered the galvanizing facility, it is the galvanizers responsibility to track and maintain the identity of the product
throughout the hot-dip galvanizing process until shipment of the finished product. Again, the analogous coating requirements in
the areas of coating thickness, finish, and adherence are present in ASTM A767/A767M. However, this single product
specification introduces a few new requirements that apply solely to hot-dip galvanized rebar. In ASTM A767/A767M, the coating
requirement is given in mass of the zinc coating per surface area. A summary of the table given in ASTM A767/A767M and the
minimum required coating thickness/weight of the classes is seen in Table 4.
This specification also introduces a new requirement to the galvanized coating known as chromating. Newly
galvanized steel can react with wet concrete and potentially form hydrogen gas as a product. As this evolved
hydrogen gas travels through the concrete matrix toward the surface, voids can be created which weaken the
bonding with the concrete or disturb the smoothness of the concrete surface. In order to help prevent and suppress
this reaction, hot-dip galvanized rebar is dipped into a dilute chromate quench solution after being removed from
the galvanizing kettle.
The finish requirement for rebar is along the same lines as the finish requirements given in specifications ASTM
A123/A123M and A153/A153M. The coating is intended for corrosion protection, so deficiencies that affect the
coatings corrosion performance are grounds for rejection. In addition, since rebar is handled frequently during its
installation, any tears or sharp spikes that make the material dangerous to handle are grounds for rejection.

Rebar is commonly bent prior to the hot-dip galvanizing process. Table 5 (below) gives recommendations for bend
diameters based upon the bare steel bar diameter before coating. Steel reinforcing bars bent cold prior to hot-dip
galvanizing should be fabricated to a bend diameter equal to or greater than the specified values. However, steel
reinforcing bars can be bent to diameters tighter than specified in Table 5 providing they are stress relieved at a
temperature of 900 to 1050 F (480 to 560 C) for one hour per inch (25 mm) of diameter.
 Other Galvanizing Standards
There are Canadian and international
specifications that may be used to specify hot-
dip galvanizing on a project. The differences in
these specifications and the ASTM
specifications are minimal, and for the most
part, only differ slightly in the minimum coating
thickness/weight required for each type and
thickness of product being hot-dip galvanized.

Here is a summary of these specifications for

hot-dip galvanizing (taken from CSA and ISO
Standards):
CAN/CSA-G164 Hot Dip Galvanizing of Irregularly
Shaped Articles
Scope

1. This standard specifies the requirements for zinc coating (galvanizing) by the hot-dipping process on iron and
steel products made from rolled, pressed, or forged shapes such as structural sections, plates, bars, pipes, or
sheets 1 mm thick or thicker.
2. Applies to products intended or primarily for use in electrical and communication systems made from rolled,
pressed, cast iron, or forged shapes such as structural sections, plates, bars, pipes, or sheets 1 mm thick and
thicker.
3. Does not apply to continuous galvanizing of chain link fence fabric, wire, sheet, and strip.
4. Does not apply to pipe and conduit that are normally hot dip galvanized by a continuous or semicontinuous
automatic process.
5. Inspection and Sampling procedure varies slightly from ASTM A123.
6. Maximum allowable size for repair at the galvanizing plant varies from ASTM A123.
7. The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as the standard. The values in parentheses are imperial units
and are included for information only.
ISO 1461 Hot Dip Galvanized Coatings on Fabricated Iron and Steel Articles
Scope: This Standard specifies the general properties of and methods of test for coatings applied by hot dipping in zinc
(containing not more than 2% of other metals) on fabricated iron and steel articles.

It does not apply to:

1. Sheet and wire continuously hot dip galvanized;

2. Tube and pipe hot dip galvanized in automatic process;

3. Hot dip galvanizing products for which specific standards exist and which may include additional requirements or
requirements different from those of this European Standard.

4. After-treatment/overcoating of hot dip galvanized articles is not covered by this standard.

NOTE Individual product standards can incorporate this standard for the coating by quoting its number, or may incorporate it with
modifications specific to the product.

NOTE Hot-dip galvanizing to ASTM A123/A123M or ASTM A153/A153M will typically lead to an end quality equivalent to ISO
1461. However, there are significant differences between ISO 1461 and ASTM A123/A123M or A153/A153M regarding inspection
methods and documentation. Please refer to ISO 1461 for the specific requirements regarding inspection methods and minimum
average coating thickness requirements. The European General Galvanizers Association (EGGA) provides additional guidance on
their website.
AASHTO M111: Zinc (Hot-Dip Galvanized) Coatings on Iron and Steel Products

Scope: This standard is applicable to parts galvanized after fabrication such as

structural shapes, strip and bar, plate, tubing/piping, wire, etc. The standard is
equivalent to ASTM A123.

AASHTO M232: Zinc Coating (Hot-Dip) on Iron and Steel Hardware

Scope: This standard is applicable to parts galvanized after fabrication such as

fasteners and small parts that must be spun/centrifuged after galvanizing to
remove excess zinc from threads, etc. It is equivalent to the specification ASTM
A153.
 Types of Inspection
In this section, the type of inspections performed on hot-dip galvanized steel will be
discussed. The various inspections are used to verify the necessary requirements for
the galvanized product are met. These techniques for each test method are specified in
ASTM A123/A123M, A153/A153M, or A767/A767M, depending upon the type of
product being inspected. The most common inspections, listed below, range from a
simple visual inspection to more sophisticated tests to determine embrittlement or
adhesion.

• Coating Thickness - magnetic gauges, optical microscopy

• Coating Weight - weigh-galvanize-weigh, and weigh-strip-weigh
• Finish and Appearance - visual inspection
• Additional Tests
1. Adherence - stout knife
2. Embrittlement - similar bend radius, sharp blow, and steel angle
3. Chromating - spot test
4. Bending - minimum finished bend diameter table
• Sampling
• Field Inspection
 Coating Thickness
Coating thickness refers to the thickness of the final hot-dip galvanized coating, while coating weight refers to the amount of zinc
for a given surface area. There are two different methods used to measure the coating thickness of hot-dip galvanized steel: a
magnetic thickness gauge and optical microscopy.

The first method, utilizing a magnetic thickness gauge, is a non-destructive, simple procedure. There are three types of magnetic
gauges, and any of the three can be used quite easily in the galvanizing facility or the field.

The first type of magnetic thickness gauge, a pencil-style gauge (Figure 14) is pocket-size and utilizes a spring-loaded magnet
encased in a pencil-like container. The tip of the gauge is placed on the surface of the steel and is slowly pulled off in a continuous
motion. When the tip of the gauge is pulled away from the surface of the steel, the magnet, near the tip, is attracted to the steel.
A graduated scale indicates the coating thickness at the instant immediately prior to pulling the magnet off the surface of the
steel.
The accuracy of the pencil-style gauge requires it to be
used in the true vertical plane because, due to gravity,
there is more error associated with measurements taken
in the horizontal plane or overhead positions. The
measurement should be made multiple times because
the absolute accuracy of this type of gauge is below
average and it is difficult to determine the true coating
thickness when only one reading is taken.
 A banana gauge (Figure 15) is the second type of thickness
gauge. With this gauge, coating thickness measurements are
taken by placing the rubber magnet housing on the surface of
the product with the gauge held parallel to the surface. A scale
ring is rotated clockwise to bring the tip of the instrument in
contact with the coated surface and rotated counter-clockwise
until a break in contact can be heard and felt. The position of
the scale ring when the magnetic tip breaks from the coated
surface displays the coating thickness. The banana gauge has
the advantage of being able to measure coating thickness in
any position, without recalibration or interference from gravity.

The electronic or digital gauge (Figure 16) is the most accurate, and arguably, the
easiest thickness gauge to operate. The electronic thickness gauge is operated
by simply placing the magnetic probe onto the coated surface and then a digital
readout displays the coating thickness. Electronic gauges have the advantage of
not requiring recalibration with probe orientation, but do require verification
with shims of different thicknesses in order to confirm the accuracy of the gauge
at the time it is being used. These shims are measured and the gauge is
calibrated according to the thickness of the shim, and then this process is
repeated for shims of different thicknesses until the gauge is producing an
accurate reading in all ranges of thickness. One benefit of the electronic or
digital gauge is the ability to store data and perform averaging calculations
which facilitates the whole process.
 ASTM E 376
The specification ASTM E376 contains information for measuring coating thickness using magnet or electromagnetic current. It
provides some tips for obtaining measurements with the greatest accuracy, as well as describing how the physical properties, the
structure, and the coating can interfere with the measurement methods. It also contains some general guidelines for how to
reduce errors. Some of the key requirements and guidelines include:

• Measurement readings should be as widely dispersed as possible

• Measurements on large products should be made at least 4 inches from the edge
• Readings should be on regular areas of the coating
• Readings should not be taken near an edge, hole, or inside corner
• Readings taken on curved surfaces should be avoided, if possible
• At least five readings should be taken to obtain a good, true value representative of the sample
• Reverify frequently, using non-magnetic film standards or shims above and below the expected thickness value

The other method to measure coating thickness, optical microscopy (Figure 17), is a
destructive technique that exposed the edge of a coating under an optical microscope. The
sample must be sectioned, then mounted and polished to show the exposed edge of the hot-
dip galvanized coating. The calibrated eyepiece of an optical microscope can then determine
the thickness of the coating. Because this is a destructive technique, it is typically only used
for inspection of single specimen samples to resolve measurement disputes or for research
studies. The accuracy of optical microscopy is highly dependent on the expertise of the
operator.
 Coating Weight
Coating weight refers to the amount of zinc coating applied to a product for a given surface area.
Two different methods can be used to measure the coating weight of hot-dip galvanized steel.

The first method to measure the coating weight is a process called weigh-galvanize-weigh, and is
only appropriate for single specimen samples. This method measures the weight of a steel part
after it has been cleaned, and again after galvanizing is completed. Weigh-galvanize-weigh will
only measure the added zinc weight in the coating, but the actual coating is made up of both
iron and zinc, so this method will underestimate the total coating weight by 10%. Furthermore, it
can be very difficult to measure and calculate the surface area of a complex steel fabrication, and
this makes coating weight values even less accurate.
Weigh-strip-weigh is the second method used to measure coating weight, and again is destructive so it is only
appropriate for single specimen samples. This process measures the weight immediately after a galvanized part is
cooled, then stripping all of the zinc coating and weighing it again. The difference in the weights is then divided by
the surface area of the part to find the amount of zinc coating added during hot-dip galvanizing. This method
renders a part unusable as it removes all of the coating during the measurement. Weigh-strip-weigh is usually only
used on small products such as nails, and can be inaccurate because when the coating is stripped, there may be
some base metal stripped along with the zinc coating. The extra iron that is potentially included in the
measurement will lead to an overestimation of the actual zinc coating weight.
 Finish & Appearance
The inspection of finish and appearance is done with an
unmagnified visual inspection. This inspection is performed by
fully observing all parts and pieces of a hot-dip galvanized
product to ensure all necessary components and
specifications have been met. The purpose of the visual
inspection is to identify any surface conditions, both inside
and out, and check all contact points, as well as welds,
junctions, and bend areas. The visual inspection should be
completed at the galvanizing facility before the part is
shipped.
 Appearance

The appearance of the hot-dip galvanized coating can vary from piece to piece, and
even section to section of the same piece. Common appearances for hot-dip
galvanized steel immediately after galvanizing include bright and shiny, spangled,
matte gray, and/or a combination of these. There are a number of reasons for the
non-uniform appearance; however, it is important to note appearance has no
bearing on the corrosion protection of the piece. Furthermore, in time, after
exposure to the environment, all galvanized coatings will take on a uniform matte
gray appearance. This section will overview the reasons for differences in
appearance.
 Finish

When inspecting the finish of the hot-dip galvanized coating, a variety of

surface conditions may be observed. Several factors can affect the finish
of the coating some can be controlled by the galvanizers while others
cannot. This section will review a number of possible conditions visible
on the galvanized coating. Some of these surface conditions are
rejectable, as they will seriously lower the corrosion protection, while
others have little or no effect on the corrosion performance and are
acceptable.
 Different Appearances
As stated, the appearance of hot-dip galvanized steel immediately after galvanizing can be bright
and shiny, spangled, matte gray, or a combination of these. There are a number of reasons for
the difference in appearance, as explored here, but regardless if the piece is shiny or dull, the
appearance has no effect on the corrosion performance. And in time after exposure to the
environment, all galvanized coatings will take on a uniform matte gray appearance.
Reasons for Different Appearances
Steel Chemistry.

The most common reason for galvanized steel to have different appearances is the chemistry of the steel
pieces. There are two elements of steel chemistry which most strongly influence the final appearance;
silicon and phosphorous. Both silicon and phosphorous promote coating growth, and this thicker coating
is responsible for the differing appearance.

The amount of silicon added during the steel making process to deoxidize the steel can create differences
in appearance of galvanized products. The recommended silicon composition for steel to be galvanized is
either less than 0.04% or between 0.15% and 0.25%. Any steels not within these ranges are considered
reactive steels and are expected to form thicker than average zinc coatings.
In addition to producing thicker coatings, highly reactive steels tend to have a matte gray or mottled appearance instead of the
typical bright coating. This difference in appearance is a result of the rapid zinc-iron intermetallic growth that consumes all of the
bright, pure zinc. This growth of the intermetallic layer is generally out of the galvanizer's control, because they usually do not
have prior knowledge of the steel's composition. However, this increased coating thickness can be beneficial in some respects
because time to first maintenance is directly proportional to coating thickness.

Figure 18 shows the difference in alloy formation on steel with the recommended silicon ranges (left) and those of reactive steels
(right). The photomicrograph clearly shows the microscopic level differences that can occur due to the amount of silicon in the
steel being hot-dip galvanized.

The Sandelin curve, as seen in Figure 19, compares the zinc coating thickness to the mass percentage of silicon in the steel. The
range on the graph labeled "I" is called the Sandelin range, named after the metallurgist who discovered the behavior, and the
coatings tend to be thick and dull gray as a direct result of the percentage of silicon present in the base steel. The Sandelin range
is roughly between 0.05% and 0.15% silicon. The rangeon the graph labeled "II", which represents a steel content of greater than
0.25% silicon, shows the coating thickness increases with increased silicon content and then starts to level off at around 0.40%
silicon.
Similar to silicon, the presence of phosphorus influences the reaction
between the liquid zinc and the steel. Figure 20 shows steel with
phosphorous levels over 0.04%, which produces matte gray coating areas and
ridges of rough surfaces where there is increased intermetallic growth and a
thicker coating. Phosphorus is generally considered an impurity in steel
except where its beneficial effects on machinability and resistance to
atmospheric corrosion are desired. Some steels such as ASTM A242 Type 1
present problems because they may contain both a high level of phosphorus
and a high level of silicon.
Figure 21 is an example of products with separate galvanized pieces that have very different appearances due to the difference in
steel chemistry. This is often observed when connecting different types or thicknesses of steel, but can also occur on similar
pieces. Another common place this is found is in welded areas, as the silicon content of the weld rod can influence appearance.
Regardless of the appearance, all of these products have an equal amount of corrosion resistance and meet the specification
requirements.

Cooling Rate

A steel part with both dull and shiny coating can also be the result of a different
cooling rate. In Figure 22, the outer edges were cooled rapidly, which allowed free
zinc or an eta layer to form on top of the intermetallic layers. The zinc in the center of
the product remained above 550 F longer, thus the metallurgical reaction between
zinc and iron continued consuming the free zinc layer, which gives the matte gray look.
Eventually, as the product weathers, the differences in appearance will become less
noticeable and/or disappear and the piece will become a uniform, matte gray
throughout.
Steel Processing
In addition to temperature and chemistry of the steel, the processing of the
steel can also create a bright or dull appearance in galvanized products. The top
rail in Figure 23 has a winding pattern of dull gray areas corresponding to the
process used during the tube making. The stresses in the steel affect the
intermetallic formation and can create this striped look. The corrosion
protection is not affected and these parts are acceptable.
 Finish: Surface Conditions
When inspecting the finish of the hot-dip galvanized coating, a variety of surface conditions can be observed. Several factors can
affect the finish of the galvanized coating - some of these factors can be controlled by the galvanizer while others cannot. The
specification requirement for finish is the coating must be smooth, uniform, and continuous. There are many subjective
interpretations for what that means; however, the key to whether surface conditions are acceptable or not relates to its effect on
the long-term corrosion performance. If the surface condition will not lessen the long-term corrosion resistance of the piece, it is
acceptable. On the other hand, if the condition compromises the life of the coating, it is cause for rejection.

If a hot-dip galvanized steel part has been rejected for any reason other than embrittlement, the part may be repaired and/or
regalvanized and resubmitted for inspection. There are specific limitations to repairable areas, which will be discussed later in
this publication. If the area does not meet the requirements for repair, the part can be stripped and regalvanized and then
inspected again. It is important to note galvanizing does not change the mechanical properties of the steel, so there is no
additional issue/concern with stripping and regalvanizing the part.

The following is a list of surface conditions that can be present after galvanizing. The next sections will review each of these
conditions, their cause, and whether they are acceptable according to the specifications.
A-C D-E F-O P-R S-T U-Z
Bare Spots Delamination Fish Boning Products in Contact Sand Embedded in Casting Weeping Weld
Blasting Damage Distortion Flaking Rough Surface Condition Skimmings Welding Blowouts
Chain and Wire Drainage Spikes Flux Inclusions Runs Striations Welding Spatter
Marks Dross Inclusions Grinder Marks Rust Bleeding Steel Surface Condition Wet Storage Stain
Clogged Holes Excess Aluminum in Oxide Lines Surface Contaminant Zinc Skimmings
Clogged Threads Galvanizing Bath Touch Marks Zinc Splatter
 Bare Spots
Bare spots, or uncoated areas on the steel surface, are the
most common surface defect and occur because of
inadequate surface preparation, welding slag, sand
embedded in castings, excess aluminum in the galvanizing
kettle, or lifting aids that prevent the coating from forming in
a small area. Only very small areas, less than 1 inch in the
narrowest dimension with a total of no more than 0.5%of the
accessible surface area, may be renovated using ASTM A780.
This means narrow, bare areas may be repaired; however, if
they are greater than one inch-square areas, the product
must be regalvanized. In order to avoid bare spots, (Figure
24), the galvanizer must ensure the surfaces are clean and no
contaminants or rust are present after pretreatment. If the
size of the bare spot or total surface area causes rejection,
the parts may be stripped, regalvanized, and then re-
inspected for compliance to the specifications.
 Blasting Damage
Blasting damage creates blistered or flaking areas on the
surface of the galvanized product. Blasting damage follows
abrasive blasting prior to painting of the galvanized steel. It is
caused by incorrect blasting procedures creating shattering and
delamination of the alloy layers in the zinc coating. Blasting
damage, (Figure 25), can be avoided when careful attention is
paid to preparation of the product for painting. In addition,
blast pressure should be greatly reduced according to ASTM
D6386 Practice for Preparation of Zinc (Hot-Dip Galvanized)
Coated Iron and Steel Product and Hardware Surfaces for Paint.
More information about proper surface preparation of hot-dip
galvanized steel for painting can be found in the American
Galvanizers Association's (AGA's) Preparing Hot-Dip Galvanized
Steel for Paint instructional DVD and guide booklet. Since
blasting damage is induced by a post-galvanizing process, the
galvanizer is not responsible for the damage.
 Chain and Wire Marks
Another type of surface defect occurs when
steel is lifted and transported around the
galvanizing plant using a chain or wire. These
lifting aids can leave uncoated areas on the
finished product that will need to be repaired.
The superficial marks (Figure 26) left on the
galvanized coating from the lifting attachments
are not grounds for rejection unless the marks
expose bare steel; in such a case, the galvanizer
must repair the bare areas before the part is
acceptable as the ASTM specifications do not
allow any bare spots on the finished galvanized
part. One potential way to avoid these types of
marks is to design permanent or temporary
lifting points in the fabrication.
 Clogged Holes
Clogged holes are caused by molten zinc metal
not draining adequately and partially or
completely filling holes. Molten zinc will not
drain easily from holes less than 3/32 in (3 mm)
in diameter due to the viscosity of zinc metal.
The screen in Figure 27 is a good example of
this issue. Clogged holes can be minimized by
making holes as large as possible. Trapped zinc
can be removed by using active fettling when
the part is in the galvanizing kettle, vibrating
the cranes to jostle the parts, or blowing
compressed air into the galvanized parts.
Clogged holes less than 1/2 in (12.7 mm) in
diameter are not cause for rejection, unless it
prevents the part from being used for its
intended purpose.
 Clogged Threads
Similarly, clogged threads are caused
by poor drainage of a threaded
section after the product is
withdrawn from the galvanizing
kettle. Clogged threads (Figure 28)
can be cleaned using post-galvanizing
cleaning operations such as a
centrifuge or by heating them with a
torch to about 500 F (260 C) and
then brushing them off with a wire
brush to remove the excess zinc.
Clogged threads must be cleaned
and free of excess zinc before the
part can be accepted.
 Delamination
Delamination or peeling creates a rough coating on the
steel where the zinc has peeled off. There are a number of
causes for zinc peeling. Many large galvanized parts take a
long time to cool in the air and form zinc-iron layers after
they have been removed from the galvanizing kettle. This
continued coating formation leaves behind a void between
the top two layers of the galvanized coating. If there are
many voids formed, the top layer of zinc can separate from
the rest of the coating and peel off the part. If the
remaining coating still meets the minimum specification
requirements, then the part is still acceptable. If the
coating does not meet the minimum specification
requirements, then the part must be rejected and
regalvanized. If delamination (Figure 29) occurs as a result
of fabrication after galvanizing, such as blasting before
painting, then the galvanizer is not responsible for the
defect.
 Distortion
Distortion (Figure 30) is the buckling of a thin, flat
steel plate or other flat material such as wire mesh.
Distortion is caused by differential thermal expansion
and contraction rates for thinner pieces attached to
thicker, surrounding steel. Because the thinner piece
is welded, it cannot move and this creates a high
stress level often relieved by distortion of the part.
Best practice to avoid distortion is to fabricate parts
with similar thicknesses where possible or use a
thicker plate, ribs, or corrugations to stiffen flat
sections. For more on minimizing distortion, please
see the AGA's publication The Design of Products to
be Hot-Dip Galvanized after Fabrication. Distortion is
acceptable, unless it prevents the part from fulfilling
its intended use. Many distorted thin steel sheets can
be bent after galvanizing to bring the part to an
acceptable final condition.
 Drainage Spikes
Drainage spikes or drips are tear drops of zinc
along the edges of the product. Spikes and
drips are caused when steel products are
removed from the galvanizing kettle
horizontally preventing proper drainage of the
zinc from the surface (Figure 31). Drainage
spikes are typically removed during the
inspection stage by a buffing or grinding
process. Drainage spikes or drips are excess
zinc and will not affect corrosion protection,
but are potentially dangerous for anyone who
handles the parts. Therefore, they must be
removed before the part can be accepted.
 Dross Inclusions
Dross inclusions are a distinct particle of zinc-
iron intermetallic alloy that becomes
entrapped or entrained in the zinc coating
(Figure 32). This is caused by picking up zinc-
iron particles from the bottom of the kettle,
and may be avoided by changing the lifting
orientation or redesigning the product to allow
for more effective drainage. If the dross
particles are small and completely covered by
zinc metal, they will not affect the corrosion
protection and are acceptable. If there are
gross dross particles (large inclusions, then the
particles must be removed and the area
repaired.
 Excess Aluminum in Galvanizing Bath
Another type of surface defect is caused by an excess
amount of aluminum in the galvanizing bath (Figure 33).
Galvanizers are required to have a bath of 98% pure zinc,
according to the product specifications ASTM A123,
A153, and A767, while the remaining 2% may include
additives at the galvanizer's discretion. One common
additive is aluminum, which helps with the aesthetic of
the coating. When excess aluminum is in the galvanizing
bath, it creates black marks or bare spots on the surface
of the steel. This can be avoided by ensuring proper
control of the aluminum level in the galvanizing bath by
means of regular sampling and analysis, and by adjusting
the levels in a regular and controlled manner. Bare spots
due to excess aluminum in the bath may be repaired if
only small areas are evident; however, if this condition
occurs over the entire part, it must be rejected, stripped,
and regalvanized.
 Fish Boning
Fish boning is an irregular pattern over
the entire surface of the steel part. This
is caused by differences in the surface
chemistry of a large diameter steel piece
and variations in the reaction rate
between the iron in the steel and the
molten zinc. These reaction differences
cause the thickness of the galvanized
coating to vary in sharply defined zones
across the surface. Fish boning (Figure
34) has no effect on the corrosion
protection provided by the zinc coating
and is not cause for rejection of the hot-
dip galvanized part.
 Flaking
Flaking results when heavy coatings develop in the
galvanizing process, usually 12 mils or greater.
Excessively thick coatings generate high stresses at
the interface of the steel and the galvanized coating
which causes the zinc to become flaky and separate
from the steel surface. Flaking can be avoided by
minimizing the immersion time in the galvanizing
kettle and cooling of the galvanized steel parts as
quickly as possible and/or if possible using a
different steel grade. Figure 35 shows a micrograph
of flaking as well as a galvanized part with flaking
coating. In addition, using a different steel grade, if
possible, may also help avoid flaking. If the area of
flaking is small, it can be repaired and the part can
be accepted; however, if the area of flaking is larger
than allowed by the specifications, the part must
be rejected and regalvanized.
 Flux Inclusions
Flux inclusion can be created by the failure of the flux
to release during the hot-dip galvanizing process,
preventing the coating from forming under the flux
spot. Because no coating grows under the inclusion,
the area must be repaired prior to acceptance. If the
area is small enough, it can be cleaned and repaired;
otherwise, the part must be rejected. Flux deposits on
the interior of a hollow part, such as a pipe or tube
(Figure 36) cannot be repaired, thus the part must be
rejected. The potential for flux spots can increase if
the flux is applied using the wet galvanizing method,
which is when the flux floats on the zinc bath surface.
Any flux spots or deposits picked up during
withdrawal from the galvanizing kettle do not warrant
rejection if the underlying coating is not harmed, and
the flux is properly removed.
 Grinder Marks
Grinders are often used to remove
unacceptable surface conditions such as
drainage spikes, or lumps which affect
the intended use of the product.
Occasionally, visible marks may remain
upon remediation of these areas. These
marks left on the surface after grinding
are purely cosmetic and do not affect
the corrosion protection performance of
the coating. Grinder marks are
acceptable provided excessive grinding
or thinning of the coating is avoided.
 Oxide Lines
Oxide lines are light colored film lines on
the galvanized steel surface created
when a product is not withdrawn from
the galvanizing kettle at a constant rate
(Figure 38). This may be due to the
shape of the product or the drainage
conditions. Oxide lines will fade over
time as the entire zinc surface oxidizes
(weathers). Strictly an aesthetic
condition, oxide lines have no effect on
the corrosion performance; and
therefore, are not a cause for rejection
of the hot-dip galvanized parts.
 Products in Contact
Another type of surface condition can occur if
steel products come in contact with one another
or are stuck together during the galvanizing
process. This can occur when many small
products are hung on the same fixture, creating
the chance products may become connected or
overlapped during the galvanizing process (Figure
39). The galvanizer is responsible for proper
handling of all products to avoid defects from
products in contact. If this causes the surface
area of a product to have a larger bare area than
can be repaired according to the specification,
then the product must be stripped and
regalvanized.
 Rough Surface Condition
Rough surface condition or appearance is a uniformly
textured appearance over the entire product (Figure 40).
The cause for rough surface condition could be the steel
chemistry or the preparation of the surface by
mechanical cleaning such as blasting before the part is
delivered to the galvanizer. Rough surface condition
may be avoided by purchasing steel with a silicon
content less than 0.03% of the steel by weight. However,
the rough surface condition can actually have a positive
effect on corrosion performance because of the thicker
zinc coating produced. One of the few situations where
rough coating is cause for rejection is if it occurs on
handrails as it impacts the intended use of the product.
On other products, it is not cause for rejection because
the corrosion performance of galvanized steel is not
compromised.
 Runs
Runs are localized thick areas of zinc on the
surface that occur when zinc freezes on the
surface of the product during removal from
the zinc bath. This is more likely to occur on
thinner sections with large surface areas that
cool quickly. In order to avoid runs (Figure
41), adjustments of the dipping angles can
be made, if possible, to alter the drainage
pattern to be more effective. Runs are not
cause for rejection unless they affect the
intended use of the steel part. If runs are
unavoidable due to the design of the
product, but will interfere with the intended
application, they can be buffed.
 Rust Bleeding
Rust bleeding appears as a brown or red stain that leaks from
unsealed joints after the product has been hot-dip galvanized
(Figure 42). Bleeding is caused by pre-treatment chemicals
that penetrate an unsealed joint. During galvanizing of the
product, moisture boils off the trapped treatment chemicals
leaving anhydrous crystal residues in the joint. Over time,
these crystal residues absorb water from the atmosphere and
attack the steel on both surfaces of the joint, creating rust
that seeps out of the joint. Rust bleeding can be avoided by
seal welding the joint where possible or by leaving a gap
greater than 3/32 in (2.4 mm) wide to allow solutions to
escape and zinc to penetrate during hot-dip galvanizing. If
bleeding occurs, it can be cleaned by washing the joint after
the crystals are hydrolyzed. Bleeding from unsealed joints is
not the responsibility of the galvanizers and is not cause for
rejection.
 Sand Embedded in Casting
Another type of surface defect occurs
when sand becomes embedded in the
castings and creates rough or bare spots
on the surface of the galvanized steel.
Sand inclusions are not removed by
conventional acid pickling, so abrasive
cleaning should be done at the foundry
before the products are sent to the
galvanizer. This type of defect also leaves
bare spots and must be cleaned and
repaired or the part must be rejected,
stripped, and regalvanized. Sand
embedded in a casting can be seen in
Figure 43.
 Zinc Skimmings
Oxidized zinc on the bath surface, zinc skimmings
deposits, are usually caused when there is no access to
remove the zinc skimmings during the withdrawal of
the steel from the galvanizing kettle. Zinc skimmings on
the molten zinc surface are then trapped on the zinc
coating. Zinc skimming deposits (Figure 44) are not
grounds for rejection as long as the zinc coating
underneath is not harmed during their removal and it
meets the necessary specifications. For aesthetic
purposes, zinc skimmings can be brushed off the surface
or will weather out after atmospheric exposure. Other
zinc skimmings may need to be ground off the surface
of the coating with care to avoid removing coating
thickness underneath.
 Striations
Striations are characterized by raised parallel ridges
in the galvanized coating, mostly in the longitudinal
direction. This can be caused when sections of the
steel surface are more highly reactive then the areas
around them. These sections are usually associated
with segregation of steel impurities, especially
phosphorous, created during the rolling process in
steel making. Striations, as seen in Figure 45, are
related to the type of steel galvanized and while the
appearance is affected, the performance of the
corrosion protection is not. Striations are acceptable
on most parts; however, if the striations happen to
occur on handrails, then the parts must be rejected
and regalvanized. Sometimes regalvanizing does not
improve the striations and the handrail must be
refabricated out of better quality steel.
 Surface Contaminant
When surface contaminants create an
ungalvanized area where the
contaminant was originally applied, a
surface defect may occur. This is caused
by paint, oil, wax, or lacquer not removed
during the pretreatment cleaning steps.
Surface contaminants, as seen in Figure
46, should be mechanically removed
prior to the galvanizing process. If they
result in bare areas, then the repair
requirements apply and small areas may
be repaired, but a large area is grounds
for rejection and the entire part must be
regalvanized.
 Touch Marks
Another type of surface defect is known
as touch marks, which are damaged or
uncoated areas on the surface of the
product. Touch marks are caused by
galvanized products resting on each
other or by the material handling
equipment used during the galvanizing
operation. Touch marks, as seen in
Figure 47, are not cause for rejection if
they meet the size criteria for
repairable areas. They must be repaired
before the part is accepted.
 Weeping Weld
Weeping welds stain the zinc surface at the welded
connections on the steel caused by entrapped
cleaning solutions that penetrate the incomplete
weld. In order to avoid weeping welds for small
overlapping surfaces, completely seal weld the edges
of the overlapping area. For larger overlapping areas,
the area cannot be seal welded since the volume
expansion of air in the trapped area can cause
explosions in the galvanizing kettle. To avoid weeping
welds in large overlapping areas, the best plan is to
provide a 3/32 in (2.4 mm) or larger gap between
the two pieces when welding them and let the zinc
fill the gap between the pieces. This will actually
make a stronger joint when the process is complete.
Weeping welds (Figure 48) are not the responsibility
of the galvanizer and are not cause for rejection.
 Welding Blowouts
Welding blowout is a bare spot around a weld or
overlapping surface hole caused by pre-treatment
liquids penetrating the sealed and overlapped
areas that boil out during immersion in the liquid
zinc. Blowouts cause localized surface
contamination and prevent the galvanized coating
from forming. To avoid welding blowouts (Figure
49), check weld areas for complete welds to
ensure there is no fluid penetration. In addition,
products can be preheated prior to immersion into
the galvanizing kettle in order to dry out overlap
areas as much as possible. Welding blowouts cause
bare areas that must be repaired before the part is
acceptable.
 Welding Spatter
Welding spatter appears as lumps in the
galvanized coating adjacent to weld areas. It
is created when welding spatter is left on the
surface of the part before it is hot-dip
galvanized. In order to avoid welding spatter,
welding residues should be removed prior to
hot-dip galvanizing. Welding spatter (Figure
50) appears to be covered by the zinc coating,
but the coating does not adhere well and can
be easily removed leaving an uncoated area
or bare spot. If this defect occurs, the area
must be cleaned and properly repaired,
which may require regalvanizing.
 Wet Storage Stain
Wet storage stain is a white, powdery surface deposit on freshly galvanized
surfaces. It can occur when newly galvanized surfaces are exposed to fresh water,
such as rain, dew, or condensation and have no air flow over the surface causing
zinc oxide and zinc hydroxide to form. Wet storage stain is found most often on
tightly stacked and bundled items, such as galvanized sheets, plates, angles, bars,
and pipes. Wet storage stain can have the appearance of light, medium, or heavy
white powder on the galvanized steel product (Figure 51).
One method to avoid wet storage stains is to passivate the product after galvanizing by using a
chromate quench solution. Another precaution is to avoid stacking products in poorly ventilated,
damp conditions. Light or medium wet storage stain will weather over time in service and is
acceptable. In most cases, wet storage stain does not indicate serious degradation of the zinc
coating, nor does it necessarily imply any likely reduction in the expected life of the product.
However, heavy wet storage stain should be removed mechanically or with appropriate chemical
treatments before the galvanized part is put into service. Heavy storage stain must be removed
or the part must be rejected and regalvanized.

The galvanizer is responsible for following best practices for avoiding wet storage stain on parts
stored at the galvanizing facility. When those best practices are followed, the galvanizer is not
responsible for wet storage stain developed at his facility, during transit, or storage at the job site
prior to use. For more information on avoiding and/or removing wet storage stain, please see the
AGA's publication Wet Storage Stain.
 Zinc Skimmings
Skimming deposits are usually caused when
there is no access to remove zinc skimmings
during the withdrawal of the steel from the
galvanizing kettle. Zinc skimmings on the
molten surface are then trapped on the zinc
coating. To remove zinc skimmings without
harming the soft zinc coating underneath,
lightly brush them off the surface of the
galvanized steel during the in-house inspection
stage with a nylon-bristle brush. Zinc skimmings
(Figure 52) are not grounds for rejection as long
as the zinc coating underneath is not harmed
during their removal and it meets the necessary
specifications.
 Zinc Splatter
Zinc splatter is defined as splashes and flakes
of zinc that loosely adhere to the galvanized
coating surface. Zinc splatter is created when
moisture on the surface of the galvanizing
kettle causes liquid zinc to "pop" and splash
droplets onto the product. These splashes
create flakes of zinc loosely adherent to the
galvanized surface. Zinc splatter (Figure 53)
will not affect the corrosion performance of
the zinc coating and thus is not cause for
rejection. The splatter does not need to be
cleaned off the zinc coating surface, but can
be if a consistent, smooth coating is required.
 Additional Tests

In addition to coating measurements and a visual inspection of the appearance

and finish, there are a few other tests that may be conducted on hot-dip
galvanized steel. These tests are typically only done when there is a question or
concern about a specific part.
 Adherence Test
Testing of the zinc coating adherence to the steel is achieved
using a stout knife (Figure 52). The coating shall be deemed not
adherent if it flakes off and exposes the base metal in advance of
the knifepoint. The test is not an attempt to pare or whittle the
zinc coating. If the coating is adherent the knife should put a
slight mark in the zinc metal surface, but should not cause any
delamination of the coating layers.
Adhesion Test with a Stout Knife

• Push down point of stout knife

• Coating must not flake off exposing the base metal

• Do not perform at edges or corners of the product

• No paring or whittling with knife is acceptable

 Bending Test
Peeling and flaking that occurs to the coating when bending rebar after
galvanizing is not a cause for rejection and may be repaired. Bend tests on
steel fabrications are strictly to test for embrittlement. The recommended
bend radius is 3x the section thickness. There are various tests used to assess
the ductility of steel when subjected to bending. One test may include the
determination of the minimum radius or diameter required to make a
satisfactory bend. Another test may include the number of repeated bends
the material can withstand without failure when it is bent through a given
angle and over a definite radius.

Rebar is commonly bent prior to the hot-dip galvanizing process. Steel

reinforcing bars bent cold prior to hot-dip galvanizing should be fabricated to a
bend diameter equal to or greater than the specified value in ASTM
A767/A767M. However, steel reinforcing bars can be bent to diameters tighter
than the specified values if they are stress relieved at a temperature of 900 to
1050 F (480 to 560 C) for one hour per inch (25 mm) of diameter.
 Passivation Test

The specification to determine the presence of chromate on zinc surfaces is ASTM B201.
This test involves placing drops of a lead acetate solution on the surface of the product,
waiting five seconds, and then blotting it gently. If this solution creates a dark deposit or
black stain, then there is unpassivated zinc present. A clear result indicates the presence of a
chromate passivation coating.
 Embrittlement Test

When there is suspicion of potential embrittlement of a product, it may be necessary to test a

small group of the products to measure the ductility. These tests are usually destructive to the
zinc coating and possibly to the product as well. Products suspected of embrittlement shall be
tested according to the specification ASTM A143. Depending on the service conditions the
product will be exposed to, one of three embrittlement tests: similar bend radius test, sharp
blow test, or steel angle test may need to be performed. The embrittlement test uses a known
force to provide a stress that should be lower than the yield stress of the part. If there is a
fracture or permanent damage created during the testing process, the parts must be rejected.
 Sampling
A sampling protocol has been developed by ASTM to ensure high quality products because the
inspection of the coating thickness for every piece of material galvanized in a project would not
be practical. ASTM A123/A123M states for a unit of products whose surface area is equal to or
less than 160 in² (1032 cm²), the entire surface of each test product constitutes a specimen. In
the case of a product containing more than one material category or steel thickness range, that
product will contain more than one specimen. In addition, products with surface areas greater
than 160 in² (1032 cm²) are multi-specimen products. There are four important terms used in the
ASTM specifications:
Sampling Terms
• Lot - unit of production or shipment from which a sample is taken for testing

• Sample - a collection of individual units of product from a single lot

• Specimen - the surface of an individual test product or a portion of a test product

which is a member of a lot or a member of a sample representing that
lot

• Test Product - an individual unit of product that is a member of the sample

For single specimen products, each randomly selected product is a specimen. In thickness
measurement tests, five measurements are taken widely dispersed over the surface area of the
specimen in order to represent the total coating thickness. The mean value of the five coating
thicknesses for one specimen must have a minimum average coating thickness grade of not less
than one grade below the minimum average coating thickness for the material category. Figure
53 shows the separation of a lot into a sample and individual specimen.
A multi-specimen product is defined as having a surface area that is larger than 160 in² (1032
cm²), have multiple steel thicknesses, or contain more than one coating category. In order to test
coating thickness of products whose surface area is greater than 160 in² (1032 cm²), they are
subdivided into three continuous local sections with equivalent surface areas, each of which
constitutes a unique specimen. In the case of any such local section containing more than one
material category or steel thickness range, that section will contain more than one specimen.
Figure 54 depicts the separation of a lot into a sample and individual specimen.
For products hot-dip galvanized to either ASTM A123/A123M or A153/A153M, Table 6 is used to determine the minimum number
of specimens for sampling from a given lot size.

For rebar hot-dip galvanized according to ASTM A767, the information below is used to determine the minimum number of
samples per lot, measurements per sample, and the total number of measurements required for each of the different coating
thickness measurement techniques.
The minimum average coating thickness for a lot is the average of the specimen values and must meet the minimum for the
material category. The minimum for an individual specimen is one grade below the minimum for the material category. An
individual measurement has no minimum, but bare areas are not allowed on the part. The final inspection of a part shall include
thickness measurements and visual inspection. All parts that do not meet the requirement must be resorted and reinspected or
rejected and then regalvanized.
 Field Inspection

Inspection of hot-dip galvanized steel products does not end once they are accepted at the
galvanizer's facility or job site. During the erection process, and once in place, any good corrosion
protection strategy includes periodic inspection and maintenance to ensure the protective
coating is performing as expected. When inspecting hot-dip galvanized steel in the field, the
inspector should be aware of potential accelerated corrosion areas and aesthetic surface
conditions and whether they are a concern.

When inspecting a galvanized coating in the field, the number one concern is the number of
years remaining before the coating will need to be touched-up or replaced. Fortunately,
estimating the remaining time to first maintenance for hot-dip galvanized coatings in
atmospheric exposures is relatively simple. For a ballpark estimation, use a magnetic thickness
gauge to take a coating thickness measurement and check the thickness value against the AGA's
Time to First Maintenance Chart shown earlier in the course.
 Visual Observations
In addition to taking coating
thickness measurements, the
galvanized coating can be
visually inspected for signs of
accelerated corrosion in
specific areas. Thickness
measurements should be taken
in these areas to ensure
adequate zinc coating remains
or if touch-up should be
performed.

Corrosion-prone areas to inspect further include:

 Crevices
When corrosive elements such as water penetrate crevices, the limited air flow can create differences in potential
creating anodic and cathodic areas which can lead to corrosion. Some common areas include overlapped areas,
mated sections between fasteners, and areas where the galvanized coating is butted up against another surface
such as wood, concrete, or asphalt. When possible, crevices should be avoided during the design process.

Dissimilar Metals in Contact

When dissimilar metals are in contact, galvanic corrosion can occur. Zinc,
which comprises the galvanized coating, is high on the Galvanic Series of
Metals; and therefore, will preferentially corrode to almost any other
metal with which it is in contact. When possible, preventing dissimilar
metals from being in contact should be addressed during the design
process. Electrically isolating dissimilar metals from one another stops
galvanic corrosion and can be accomplished by using plastic or rubber
grommets between the dissimilar metals or by painting the cathode.
When the surface area of the cathode is much larger than the anode,
galvanic corrosion can quickly consume the anodic material.
 Areas Where Water Pools
Flat areas can collect water and other corrosive elements and can have higher corrosion rates than vertical surfaces.
Visually observing galvanized steel's flat areas and taking coating thickness measurements will ensure adequate
corrosion protection remains. When possible, areas that collect water can be addressed by providing drain holes to
prevent moisture from pooling on the surface for long periods. If drain holes do exist, inspect the drain holes of the
galvanized steel for corrosion and touch-up when necessary.

Previously Touched-Up Areas

Areas of hot-dip galvanized steel previously touched-up either after the
initial coating or erection often corrode more quickly than the surrounding
zinc coating and should be inspected visually and tested with a magnetic
thickness gauge. These areas may be touched-up when necessary using
the instructions listed in the Touch-Up and Repair section of this
publication to extend the service life of the part.

During your visual inspection of galvanized steel in the field, you may
observe a few common appearance issues as well. Most are surface or
aesthetic conditions and not cause for concern; however, others may
require attention and/or maintenance. The most common appearance
issues on galvanized steel after being in service for a number of years
include:
 Brown Staining
Often mistaken for corrosion, brown staining is a surface defect created when iron
in the zinc-iron alloy layers oxidizes. As previously noted in this publication,
sometimes hot-dip galvanized coatings form without a free zinc layer, leaving
intermetallic layers on the surface. Also, as galvanized steel weathers, the eta layer
will be consumed and can lead to this phenomenon. Brown staining forms when
free iron in the intermetallic layers reacts with moisture in the environment and
oxidizes, discoloring the surrounding zinc coating. To distinguish between red rust
and brown staining, simply test the area with a magnetic thickness gauge. If the
gauge reading shows a coating thickness, it is brown staining and the corrosion
performance of the galvanized coating is not affected. As brown staining is simply
an aesthetic concern, touch-up is not necessary for the stained area, and it may be
removed by brushing with a nylon bristle brush.
 Wet Storage Stain
As addressed earlier in this publication, improper storage and
tight stacking of galvanized products can lead to the
development of wet storage stain or zinc oxide and hydroxide
build-up on the surface, as discussed previously. If galvanized
products are going to be stored before erection, it is
important to properly vent the bundle to avoid the
development of wet storage stain. For more information, see
the AGA's publication Wet Storage Stain. Similar to the
development of wet storage stain when storing materials,
galvanized products in place that have moisture on the
surface without the movement of free-flowing air can develop
oxides and hydroxides that look like wet storage stain. A
common area for this to occur is on surfaces where snow is
piled on the surface and left to melt or in areas where water
pools for extended periods without drying. Wet storage stain
occurs most often during the first month after galvanizing.
 Weeping Welds

Weeping welds were previously discussed in this course, and though they can be
seen immediately after galvanizing, often they occur after the steel is in service.
As reviewed earlier, weeping welds are mostly a cosmetic concern; however,
corrosion can be accelerated in the area where the liquids and rust bleeding are
leaking. To clean and seal weeping welds, you can wash away the oxides on the
outer area and apply epoxy or caulk to the area to prevent water from penetrating
the crevices in the future.
 Bare Spots
The galvanized coating can be compromised during
delivery, handling, erection, and while in use. Some
cathodic protection is offered to bare areas of the
steel by the surrounding galvanized coating, but
these areas can still rust if the area is too wide or
corrosive elements frequently attack the steel.
Research has shown the galvanized coating offers
cathodic protection to bare areas between 1 mm - 5
mm wide depending on the electrolyte that
electrically connects the galvanized coating to the
bare area. Bare areas should be touched-up in
accordance with the procedures outlined in this
publication to ensure the longevity of the
surrounding coating.
Articles to be Painted After Hot-dip Galvanizing
Some surface conditions present on hot-dip galvanized coatings such as roughness,
skimmings, small dross inclusions, and zinc runs do not affect the corrosion
protection and are typically acceptable under the inspection requirements of ASTM
A123. However, when articles are to be painted or powder coated after hot-dip
galvanizing (known as a Duplex System), these same surface conditions can result
in adhesion issues or paint film gaps, and are therefore not acceptable without
smoothing after galvanizing.

Once the galvanizer and painter are mutually aware the article is to be duplexed,
the responsibility for surface smoothing shall be mutually determined. Instructions
and requirements for smoothing the surface are contained within the surface
preparation standards ASTM D6386 and D7803.
 Repair
If the galvanized product does not meet all of the
requirements of the specification, it must be repaired or
rejected along with the lot it represents. When repair of
the product is allowed by the specification or bare spots
are present, the galvanizer is responsible for the repair
unless directed otherwise by the purchaser. The
specifications allow for some retesting of products that
represent lots or retesting after the lot has been sorted
for non-conformance.

The coating thickness of the repaired area must match

the coating thickness of the surrounding area. However,
if zinc-rich paint is used for repair, the coating thickness
must be 50% higher than the surrounding area, but not
greater than 4.0 mils because mud cracking tends to
result when the paint coating is too thick. The maximum
sizes for allowable areas that can be repaired during in-
plant production are defined in the specifications as
summarized below.
Maximum Size of Repairable Area at Galvanizing Plant
• ASTM A 123/A 123M:
1. Bare spot(s) shall not exceed 1 inch in the narrowest dimension
2. And the total bare spot(s) can be no more than 0.5% of the accessible surface area to be coated or 36 square
inches per piece, whichever is less

• ASTM A 153/A 153M:

1. Bare spots shall have an area totaling no more than 1% of the total surface area to be coated, excluding
threaded areas of the piece

• ASTM A 767/A 767M:

1. Bare spot(s) shall not exceed 1% of the total surface area in each 1ft [0.3m] length of the bar.
2. If the coating fails to meet the requirement for finish and adherence, the bar may be stripped, regalvanized,
and resubmitted
3. Damage done to the coating due to fabrication or handling shall be repaired with a zinc-rich formulation
4. Sheared ends shall be coated with a zinc-rich formulation
 Field Repair
The zinc coating of hot-dip galvanized
steel is difficult to damage, and field
fabrication that requires removal of the
coating should be minimized as much as
possible. However, sometimes due to
improper handling or abrasion after
years in service, small voids are found in
the coating. To maintain uniform barrier
and cathodic protection and ensure
longevity, it is best practice to touch-up
and repair the coating. When it comes
to touching-up galvanized steel in the
field, there is no limitation to the size
that can be repaired.
 Repair Methods
Any repairs made to galvanized products must follow the requirements of ASTM
A780 Practice for Repair of Damaged and Uncoated Areas of Hot-Dip Galvanized
Coatings, which defines the acceptable materials and the required procedures.
Repairs are normally completed by the galvanizer before the products are delivered,
but under certain circumstances, the purchaser may perform the repairs on their
own. The touch-up and repair materials are formulated to deliver similar colors to
brightly coated, newly galvanized products or matte gray, aged galvanized products.
Materials used to repair hot-dip galvanized products include zinc-based solder, zinc-
rich paint, and zinc spray metallizing, and are explained in the following sections.
 Zinc-Based Solder
Soldering with zinc-based alloys is
achieved by applying zinc alloy in
either a stick or powder form. The
area being repaired needs to be
preheated to approximately 600 F
(315 C). The most commonly used
solders for repair (Figure 55)
include zinc-tin-lead, zinc-
cadmium, and zinc-tin-copper
alloys.
 Surface Preparation

According to ASTM A780, the surface to be reconditioned shall be wire

brushed, lightly ground, or mildly blast cleaned. This surface preparation
shall extend into the surrounding, undamaged galvanized coating to
ensure a smooth repair and good adhesion. The cleaned area also needs
be preheated to 600 F (315 C) and wire brushed while heated. Pre-flux
may also be necessary to provide chemical cleaning of the bare spot.
Finally, special care should be given to insure that the surrounding
galvanized coating is not overheated and burned by the preheating.
 Application

The soldering method is the most difficult of the three repair methods to
complete. A high level of caution must be taken while heating the bare
spot to prevent oxidizing the exposed steel or damaging the surrounding
galvanized coating. Solders are typically not economically suited for
touch-up of large areas because of the time involved in the process and
because heating of a large surface area to the same temperature is very
difficult. When the repair has been completed, the flux residue needs to
be removed by rinsing the surface with water or wiping with a damp
cloth.
 Final Repaired Product

The final coating thickness for this repair must meet the
specification requirement for the material category and
thickness range of the steel part being repaired. The thickness
should be measured by any of the methods in A123/A123M that
are non-destructive. Zinc-based solder products closely match
the surrounding zinc and blend in well with the existing coating
appearance.
 Zinc-Rich Paint
Zinc-rich paint (Figure 56) is applied to a
clean, dry steel surface by either a brush
or spray, and usually contains an organic
binder pre-mix. Zinc-rich paints must
contain either between 65% to 69% or
greater than 92% metallic zinc by weight
in dry film. Paints containing zinc dust
are classified as organic or inorganic,
depending on the binder they contain.
Inorganic binders are particularly
suitable for paints applied in touch-up
applications around and over
undamaged hot-dip galvanized areas.
 Surface Preparation

According to ASTM A780, the surface to be repaired shall be

blast cleaned to SSPC-SP10/NACE No.2 near white metal for
immersion applications and SSPC-SP11 near bare metal for less
aggressive field conditions. When blasting or power tool
cleaning is not practical, hand tools may be used to clean areas
to be reconditioned. The blast cleaning must extend into the
surrounding, undamaged, galvanized coating.
 Application

This method of repairing galvanized surfaces must take place as soon as possible
after preparation is completed and prior to the development of any visible oxides.
The spraying or brushing should be in an application of multiple passes and must
follow the paint manufacturer's specific written instructions. In addition, proper
curing of the repaired area must occur before the product is put through the final
inspection process. This repair can be done either in the galvanizing plant or on the
job site and is the easiest repair method to apply because limited equipment is
required. Zinc-rich painting should be avoided if high humidity and/or low
temperature conditions exist because adhesion may be adversely affected.
 Final Repaired Product

The coating thickness for the paint must be 50% higher than the
surrounding coating thickness, but not greater than 4.0 mils, and
measurements should be taken with either a magnetic,
electromagnetic or eddy current gauge. Finally, the surface of
the painted coating on the repaired area should be free of
lumps, coarse areas, and loose particles.
 Zinc Spray Metallizing
Zinc spray, which is also referred to
as metallizing, is done by melting
zinc powder or zinc wire in a flame
or electric arc and projecting the
liquid zinc droplets by air or gas
onto the surface to be coated
(Figure 57). The zinc used is
nominally 99.5% pure or better and
the corrosion resistance of the wire
or powder is approximately equal.
 Surface Preparation

According to ASTM A780, the surface to be reconditioned shall be blast

cleaned to SSPC-SP5/NACE No.1 near white metal and must be free of
oil, grease, weld flux residue, weld spatter and corrosion products. The
blast cleaning must extend into the surrounding, undamaged, galvanized
coating.
 Application

Zinc spraying of the clean, dry surface must be completed by skilled workers and
should take place within four hours after preparation or prior to development of
visible oxides. Spraying should also be done in horizontal overlapping lines, which
yield a uniform thickness more consistent than the crosshatch technique. The zinc
coating can be sealed with a thin coating of low viscosity polyurethane, epoxy-
phenolic, epoxy, or vinyl resin. The details of the application sequence and
procedures can be found in ANSI/AWS C2.18-93. The application of zinc spray can
be done either in the galvanizer's plant or at the job site. In addition, if high
humidity conditions exist during spraying, adhesion may be degraded.
 Final Repaired Product

The repaired area must have a zinc coating thickness at least as thick as that
specified in ASTM A123/A123M for the appropriate material category. These
thickness measurements should be taken with either a magnetic or an
electromagnetic gauge for best results. The plain zinc sprays or the sprays with
aluminum additives both provide a good match for newly galvanized, bright
surfaces. Finally, the surface of the sprayed zinc coating should be free of any
lumps, coarse areas, and loose particles.