Consumer Electronics
BEC654B
Introduction
The principle of television was first demonstrated
by J.L. Baird in London in
1925–27. Since then many other inventions and
innovations have taken place.
Initial TV systems used vacuum tubes. Today’s
television systems consist of solid
state devices. Regular TV programmes were
started in England in 1936 and in USA
in 1939. After 1945 the progress of television in
the whole world has been tremendous.
In India it was introduced in early sixties but was
limited to metropolitan cities only.
In late seventies the system was expanded to
cover many more cities and towns.
Introduction
It is always more pleasing to view a scene in its
natural color in comparison with viewing the
same scene in its black and white version.
The television transmission and reception started
with monochrome (black and white).
However research and development in solid state
devices prompted the advent of color television.
Light Energy
Light is a form of electromagnetic energy.
Its two features are intensity and color.
The light sensations are viewed by the light
sensitive organs of eye and conducted to the brain
by the optical nerve.
As per Helmholtz theory the light sensitive
organs of the eye consists of rods and cones.
The sensations of light brightness is caught by the
rods.
This enable us to live the objects in different
shades of grey with black on one end and white at
the other end.
The cones of the eye are sensitive to color.
These cones are in three groups.
Light Energy
One group of cones perceives red color in the
scene, One group of cones perceives blue color in
the scene, One group of cones perceives green
color in the scene.
Thus each group of cones identifies one color
each.
Primary colors
Red, green, and blue are the primary colors.
The spectrum of wavelengths visible to human eyes
ranges from 400nm for violet and 700nm for red.
White light is mixture of all colours.
Red, green, and blue are the primary colors because
all colors can be obtained by mixing these colors in
suitable proportions.
However none of these three colours can be
obtained from the other two.
The optical nerve of the eye mixes the different
color perceptions so that the color of the object can
be seen.
White is the combination of all the three colours in
equal brightness.
Tristimulus values
The commission of international Eclairage
illumination standardized the different color
combinations.
The are primary colours Red, green, and blue.
The three color component values of the different
colours are called tristimulus values.
Natural white has 30% red, 59% green and 11%
blue.
Thus one lumen of white light = 0.3 lumen of red +
0.59 lumen of green +0.11 lumen of blue.
If concentration of luminous flux is reduced by the
same factor for all the three colours, the resultant
colour will still be white (because the three colours
will be present in the same proportion) but the level
of brightness will be less.
The brightness of different colours is represented
with respect to that of white. When brightness of
the three primary colours is zero, the result is
black.
If we mix 0.2 lumen of each of primary colours
we get dark grey i.e. 0.2 (0.3) + 0.2 × (0.59) + 0.2
× (0.11) = 0.06 + 0.118 + 0.022 Red Green Blue
= 0.2 lumen dark grey.
Trichromatic coefficients, colour triangle
The three primary colours red, green, and blue
have to be added in the proportion 0.30, 0.59 and
0.11 respectively to give white colour.
The three coefficients arise due to the fact that
human eye has different sensitivity to these three
colours.
But these three values 0.3, 0.59 and 0.11 are very
inconvenient. In Trichromatic units all the three
primary colours are added in equal amount to
yield white colour.
Thus T (trichromatic) units of white consists of
1/3 T unit of each green, red and blue. The
trichromatic coefficients x, y, z can be
represented in terms of tristimulus value x′, y′, z′,
as under
Since the sum of trichromatic coefficients is 1, it
is necessary to find only two of them. If x and y
can be found then z = 1 – x – y.
The T coefficients x, y, z can be represented by a
triangle called colour triangle shown in Fig. 1.
In this triangle red is shown on x-axis and green on
y-axis. The third axis z is perpendicular to the x – y
plane.
Blue is along z-axis. Since x + y + z = 1, the third
axis need not be shown. The extremity of each axis
represents 1.
Therefore the x, y, z coordinates of red colour are 1,
0, 0 coordinates for green colour are 0, 1, 0 and
coordinates for blue are 0, 0, 1.
Using These x, y, z coordinates we can easily find
the three coordinates for secondary colours e.g. for
magenta x = 0.5, y = 0 and z = 1 – 0.5 = 0.5 for
yellow x = 0.5, y = 0.5 and z = 0 for cyan x = 0, y =
0.5 and z = 0.5 For white the x, y, z coordinates are
0.333 each.
Fig. 1. Colour triangle
Mixing of colours
Red, green and blue are the primary colours. When these
colours are mixed we get secondary colours. The mixing
of colours can occur in two ways i.e. additive mixing and
subtractive mixing.
Additive Mixing of Colours
When we see different primary colours coming from
independent sources, we see the combined effect.
Additive mixing of colours takes place in our eyes and
we see a colour different from the original ones.
Red green and blue mixed in equal intensities give rise to
white.
Mixing of red and green in equal intensities gives
yellow colour.
Thus Red + Blue + Green = white
Red + Green = yellow
Blue + Green = Cyan
Red + Blue = Magenta
When the intensities of primary colours being
mixed are different we get still some other
colours.
One lumen of red mixed with 0.5 lumen of green
gives reddish yellow.
Fig. 2. Additive mixing of colour
Subtractive Mixing of Colours
When an object subtracts a colour from the incident light,
subtractive mixing takes place.
The colour seen, in that case, will be the colour of the object.
When white light is incident on a blue object, the object
absorbs green and red components of white light and we see
the blue colour.
When yellow light-falls on a red rose, green portion is
absorbed and we see only red colour of the rose.
Fig. 3 shows subtractive mixing of colours.
When green and red are subtracted from white, we see only
blue colours.
When all the three i.e. green, blue and red are absorbed by the
object, the result is black colour.
Fig. 3. Subtractive mixing of colours
Grassman’s law
The algebraic relationship defining mixing of
primary colours is known as Grassman’s law.
Eye views the additive effect of three colours.
Eye cannot distinguish between the different
components but sees only the resultant. 0.59G +
0.3R + 0.11B = Y where G means green, R means
red, B means blue and Y is the resultant.
The resultant Y is called Luminance.
Thus eye gives a response which depends on
algebraic sum of the three primary colours.
Moreover the intensity of each of the three primary
colours can be varied as per the requirement.
Colour specifications
A colour is completely specified by the following
three terms
Hue
It is the actual colour seen by eye. Red, green, blue,
yellow etc. represent different hues in the spectrum
of colours. By mixing two or more primary colours
many hues can be produced.
Luminance or Brightness
It is the total amount of light intensity or light energy
received by eye. It is expressed in lumens.
Saturation
It indicates the purity of the colour. In other words it
represents the amount of other colours present in it.
A pure green light is a saturated colour but becomes
desaturated when white is mixed with it.
Colour Signal
The three primary colours blue, green and red
produced by the three camera tubes (or a
combined tricolour camera are used to produce
the colour signal.
However, If these colours are transmitted
directly, there will not be proper compatibility
with monochrome television receivers.
Therefore the three colour signals are combined
to form luminance signal and chrominance signal.
Luminance Signal
This signal is obtained by mixing the three colours red,
green, blue in proportion of 30%, 59%, and 11%. This
mixed signal is called luminance signal denoted as Y
signal (Y does not stand for yellow). Thus Y = 0.3R +
0.59G + 0.11B where Y is luminance, R is red, G is
green and B is blue.
The above proportions have been selected keeping in view
the sensitivity of eye to these colours. Y has the
maximum value of 1 V for peak white. Thus white
includes all the three primary colours red, green and
blue. For other colours the luminance signal Y is sum of
luminance contribution of the primary components as
follows:
Chrominance Signal
Chrominance signal is also called C-signal.
It indicates the hue and saturation of colour, Y signal
has to be transmitted for compatibility with the
black and white receiver.
Instead of transmitting all the three R, G, B signals
(in addition to Y signal) two difference signals R-
Y and B-Y are sent.
It is not necessary to send G-Y signal as it can be
obtained from R-Y and B-Y signals.
We have
Y =0.3R + 0.59G + 0.11B
(a) Luminance signal
Y = 0.3R + 0.59G + 0.11B or
Y= 0.3(0.75) + 0.59(0.2) + 0.11 (0.6) = 0.409 V
(b) Colour difference signals are
R-Y = 0.75 – 0.409 = + 0.341 V
B-Y = 0.59 – 0.409 = + 0.181 V
(c) At the colour receiver the signals
Y, (R–Y) and (B–Y) are received after
demodulation.
Then, by matrixing, R and B signals are retrieved.
Thus, R =(R–Y) + Y = + 0.341 + 0.409 = 0.75 V
B =(B–Y) + Y = 0.181 + 0.409 = 0.59 V
(d) (G–Y) matrix. The (G–Y) signal is not
transmitted but is retrieved by matrixing
Generation of Y and Colour
Difference Signals
Fig. 4. Generation of Y, (R-Y) and (B-Y) colour signals
The three camera tubes give VR, VG and VB as
outputs.
These three are added in proportion of 30%, 59%
and 11% by the resistances R1, R2 and R3 to give
the Y signal.
The values of R1, R2 and R3 are chosen so as to
add VR, VG and VB in the above proportions.
In order to avoid cross-talk the resistance R C is
kept small.
Therefore, the Y signal is amplified by an
amplifier. Then Y signal is inverted (by using an
inverter) to give –Y signal which is added to R
and B signals to give (R-Y) and (B-Y) signals.
Bandwidth for colour signal transmission
Y signal is transmitted with full frequency
bandwidth of 5 MHz for maximum horizontal
details in monochrome.
However, it must be remembered that human eye
cannot differentiate between very fine colour
details.
Since the eye cannot recognise colours of objects
below a certain finite size, it is not necessary to
transmit any colour information which lies above
1.5 MHz.
For very fine colour details produced by
frequencies in the range of 1.5 MHz to 5 MHz
every person is colour blind.
In view of this the maximum bandwidth
necessary for colour signal transmission is ±1.5
MHz
Chromaticity diagram
Colour is specified by Hue, Luminance and
Saturation.
These three specifications of colour can be
represented graphically by chromaticity diagram.
Hue and saturation are shown on x and y
coordinates and Luminance is shown in Fig. 5 on
z-coordinate.
Thus this diagram is a three dimensional diagram.
In x – y plane the diagram looks like a horse shoe
shaped triangle.
White appears inside the curve. The corners
represent the three primary colours red, green and
blue as shown.
Fig. 5. Chromaticity Diagram (a) Hue and saturation along x and y
coordinates
Fig. 6. Pyramid representing brightness.
When luminance (i.e. brightness) is shown on z-
axis the diagram looks like a pyramid Fig 6 .
Brightness is maximum at the base of pyramid
and minimum at the vertex.
Thus vertex represents black. As we move from
base to vertex of pyramid the brightness changes
from maximum to minimum (i.e. white to black).
Chromaticity diagram can be used to determine
the result of additive mixing of colours
graphically.
Spectral and non-spectral colours
The three corners of the chromaticity diagram represent the
three primary colours red, blue and green.
The colours along the perimeter Fig 5 are pure saturated
colours. These are called spectral colours.
As we away from the perimeter towards the centre the colours
become less saturated.
White is at centre point having coordinates x = 0.31 and y =
0.32.
This point indicates pure white. Other white colours i.e.
sunlight, standard white etc. are around the point indicating
pure white.
Purple colours are along the base line. As we go from blue to
green to red there is gradual increase in wavelength. The
purple colours which lie along the base line are called non-
spectral colours.
COLOUR CIRCLE
The triangular chromaticity diagram can be
transformed into colour circle shown in Fig. 7.
Red, Green and Blue are radial vectors spaced
120° from each other.
The distance from centre to the circumference
represents saturation.
If one end of vector represents one primary
colour, the other end will give the complementary
colour.
Yellow is complementary to Blue and Magenta is
complementary to Green.
Fig. 7. Colour Circle
Visibility curve
The extent of visibility depends on the frequency.
Infrared and ultra violet lights are not visible.
The spectrum of wavelength visible to the eye is
from 350 nm to 750 nm.
As the wavelength increases beyond 350 nm the
response of eye increases till it becomes
maximum at about 550 nm.
The response starts decreasing again. The
wavelength of 550 nm corresponds to green
colour.
The maximum response is for the colour
greenish-yellow (wavelength slightly higher than
550 nm). It has been found that visibility for
greenish yellow is about 100 times that for violet
and red.
Fig. 8. Visibility Curve
Recent advances in tv technology
BBC introduced TV in 1930 and added colour
TV to its broadcast in 1950. By 1960 all TVs in
U.K. were colour TVs. VHS Video tapes were
introduced in 1980. The improvements and
innovations continued and are still continuing
even today to provide better viewing facilities to
public.
LCD TV
LCD TV has slim design and flat viewing
surface. It allows larger screen, wide viewing
angle and high quality picture. Most of LCD TVs
can be mounted on wall and double up as TV and
personal computer. LCD stands for liquid crystal
display.
A high source behind the panel shines light
through LCD display.
A white diffusive panel behind LCD reflects and
scatters the light evenly.
The design is based on thin film transistors
(TFT). These are basically tiny switching
transistors and capacitors arranged in a matrix.
They rapidly switch LCD pixels on and off. Each
colour pixel consists of three subpixels with red,
blue, green filters.
Pixel response time has to be fast to respond to
fast moving objects. LCD TV is energy efficient
and uses 60% less power than older TV.
LED TV
LED TV uses light emitting diodes
Thus it is a flat panel display using LED. Use of LED
means thinner panel and lower power consumption
(than LCD).
Moreover heat dissipation is better, display is very
bright and contrast control is also better.
Comparison of LED and LCD TV
1. LED TV has better dynamic control
2. LED TV is extremely thin.
3. LED TV causes less environmental pollution at the time
of disposal.
4. LED TV uses 20–30% less power than LCD TV
5. LED TV is more reliable than LCD TV
6. LED TV is more expensive than LCD TV
LED TV applies pulse width modulation to supply current
for dimming control. Thus lights can switched on and
off faster than what eye can perceive
Plasma TV
It uses tiny cells containing electrically charged ionized
gas similar to that existing in a fluorescent lamp.
One panel has millions of tiny cells arranged between
two panels of glass.
These cells hold mixture of noble gases and small
amount of mercury.
When mercury is vaporised, the electric field causes
plasma.
Some electrons strike mercury particles and the mercury
particles shed energy so as to produce ultra violet
plasma.
The plasma strikes phosphor painted on the inside of the
cells. Thus energy is converted to visible light.
Depending on type of phosphor different colours are
produced.
Plasma TVs use more power. For 50” screen the power
rating is about 400 W. Plasma screen is made of glass
which can reflect more light than LCD screen.